## Introduction ## Modules, packages, and versions A [*module*](#glos-module) is a collection of packages that are released, versioned, and distributed together. A module is identified by a [*module path*](#glos-module-path), which is declared in a [`go.mod` file](#go.mod-files), together with information about the module's dependencies. The [*module root directory*](#glos-module-root-directory) is the directory that contains the `go.mod` file. The [*main module*](#glos-main-module) is the module containing the directory where the `go` command is invoked. Each [*package*](#glos-package) within a module is a collection of source files in the same directory that are compiled together. A [*package path*](#glos-package-path) is the module path joined with the subdirectory containing the package (relative to the module root). For example, the module `"golang.org/x/net"` contains a package in the directory `"html"`. That package's path is `"golang.org/x/net/html"`. ### Versions A [*version*](#glos-version) identifies an immutable snapshot of a module, which may be either a [release](#glos-release-version) or a [pre-release](#glos-pre-release-version). Each version starts with the letter `v`, followed by a semantic version. See [Semantic Versioning 2.0.0](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0.html) for details on how versions are formatted, interpreted, and compared. To summarize, a semantic version consists of three non-negative integers (the major, minor, and patch versions, from left to right) separated by dots. The patch version may be followed by an optional pre-release string starting with a hyphen. The pre-release string or patch version may be followed by a build metadata string starting with a plus. For example, `v0.0.0`, `v1.12.134`, `v8.0.5-pre`, and `v2.0.9+meta` are valid versions. Each part of a version indicates whether the version is stable and whether it is compatible with previous versions. * The [major version](#glos-major-version) must be incremented and the minor and patch versions must be set to zero after a backwards incompatible change is made to the module's public interface or documented functionality, for example, after a package is removed. * The [minor version](#glos-minor-version) must be incremented and the patch version set to zero after a backwards compatible change, for example, after a new function is added. * The [patch version](#glos-patch-version) must be incremented after a change that does not affect the module's public interface, such as a bug fix or optimization. * The pre-release suffix indicates a version is a [pre-release](#glos-pre-release-version). Pre-release versions sort before the corresponding release versions. For example, `v1.2.3-pre` comes before `v1.2.3`. * The build metadata suffix is ignored for the purpose of comparing versions. Tags with build metadata are ignored in version control repositories, but build metadata is preserved in versions specified in `go.mod` files. The suffix `+incompatible` denotes a version released before migrating to modules version major version 2 or later (see [Compatibility with non-module repositories](#non-module-compat). A version is considered unstable if its major version is 0 or it has a pre-release suffix. Unstable versions are not subject to compatibility requirements. For example, `v0.2.0` may not be compatible with `v0.1.0`, and `v1.5.0-beta` may not be compatible with `v1.5.0`. Go may access modules in version control systems using tags, branches, or revisions that don't follow these conventions. However, within the main module, the `go` command will automatically convert revision names that don't follow this standard into canonical versions. The `go` command will also remove build metadata suffixes (except for `+incompatible`) as part of this process. This may result in a [*pseudo-version*](#glos-pseudo-version), a pre-release version that encodes a revision identifier (such as a Git commit hash) and a timestamp from a version control system. For example, the command `go get -d golang.org/x/net@daa7c041` will convert the commit hash `daa7c041` into the pseudo-version `v0.0.0-20191109021931-daa7c04131f5`. Canonical versions are required outside the main module, and the `go` command will report an error if a non-canonical version like `master` appears in a `go.mod` file. ### Major version suffixes Starting with major version 2, module paths must have a [*major version suffix*](#glos-major-version-suffix) like `/v2` that matches the major version. For example, if a module has the path `example.com/mod` at `v1.0.0`, it must have the path `example.com/mod/v2` at version `v2.0.0`. Major version suffixes implement the [*import compatibility rule*](https://research.swtch.com/vgo-import): > If an old package and a new package have the same import path, > the new package must be backwards compatible with the old package. By definition, packages in a new major version of a module are not backwards compatible with the corresponding packages in the previous major version. Consequently, starting with `v2`, packages need new import paths. This is accomplished by adding a major version suffix to the module path. Since the module path is a prefix of the import path for each package within the module, adding the major version suffix to the module path provides a distinct import path for each incompatible version. Major version suffixes are not allowed at major versions `v0` or `v1`. There is no need to change the module path between `v0` and `v1` because `v0` versions are unstable and have no compatibility guarantee. Additionally, for most modules, `v1` is backwards compatible with the last `v0` version; a `v1` version acts as a commitment to compatibility, rather than an indication of incompatible changes compared with `v0`. As a special case, modules paths starting with `gopkg.in/` must always have a major version suffix, even at `v0` and `v1`. The suffix must start with a dot rather than a slash (for example, `gopkg.in/yaml.v2`). Major version suffixes let multiple major versions of a module coexist in the same build. This may be necessary due to a [diamond dependency problem](https://research.swtch.com/vgo-import#dependency_story). Ordinarily, if a module is required at two different versions by transitive dependencies, the higher version will be used. However, if the two versions are incompatible, neither version will satisfy all clients. Since incompatible versions must have different major version numbers, they must also have different module paths due to major version suffixes. This resolves the conflict: modules with distinct suffixes are treated as separate modules, and their packages—even packages in same subdirectory relative to their module roots—are distinct. Many Go projects released versions at `v2` or higher without using a major version suffix before migrating to modules (perhaps before modules were even introduced). These versions are annotated with a `+incompatible` build tag (for example, `v2.0.0+incompatible`). See [Compatibility with non-module repositories](#compatibility-with-non-module-repositories) for more information. ### Resolving a package to a module When the `go` command loads a package using a [package path](#glos-package-path), it needs to determine which module provides the package. The `go` command starts by searching the [build list](#glos-build-list) for modules with paths that are prefixes of the package path. For example, if the package `example.com/a/b` is imported, and the module `example.com/a` is in the build list, the `go` command will check whether `example.com/a` contains the package, in the directory `b`. At least one file with the `.go` extension must be present in a directory for it to be considered a package. [Build constraints](/pkg/go/build/#hdr-Build_Constraints) are not applied for this purpose. If exactly one module in the build list provides the package, that module is used. If two or more modules provide the package, an error is reported. If no modules provide the package, the `go` command will attempt to find a new module (unless the flags `-mod=readonly` or `-mod=vendor` are used, in which case, an error is reported). When the `go` command looks up a new module for a package path, it checks the `GOPROXY` environment variable, which is a comma-separated list of proxy URLs or the keywords `direct` or `off`. A proxy URL indicates the `go` command should contact a [module proxy](#glos-module-proxy) using the [`GOPROXY` protocol](#goproxy-protocol). `direct` indicates that the `go` command should [communicate with a version control system](#communicating-with-vcs). `off` indicates that no communication should be attempted. The `GOPRIVATE` and `GONOPROXY` [environment variables](#environment-variables) can also be used to control this behavior. For each entry in the `GOPROXY` list, the `go` command requests the latest version of each module path that might provide the package (that is, each prefix of the package path). For each successfully requested module path, the `go` command will download the module at the latest version and check whether the module contains the requested package. If one or more modules contain the requested package, the module with the longest path is used. If one or more modules are found but none contain the requested package, an error is reported. If no modules are found, the `go` command tries the next entry in the `GOPROXY` list. If no entries are left, an error is reported. For example, suppose the `go` command is looking for a module that provides the package `golang.org/x/net/html`, and `GOPROXY` is set to `https://corp.example.com,https://proxy.golang.org`. The `go` command may make the following requests: * To `https://corp.example.com/` (in parallel): * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x/net/html` * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x/net` * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x` * Request for latest version of `golang.org` * To `https://proxy.golang.org/`, if all requests to `https://corp.example.com/` have failed with 404 or 410: * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x/net/html` * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x/net` * Request for latest version of `golang.org/x` * Request for latest version of `golang.org` After a suitable module has been found, the `go` command will add a new requirement with the new module's path and version to the main module's `go.mod` file. This ensures that when the same package is loaded in the future, the same module will be used at the same version. If the resolved package is not imported by a package in the main module, the new requirement will have an `// indirect` comment. ## `go.mod` files ### `go.mod` file format ### Minimal version selection (MVS) ### Compatibility with non-module repositories ## Module-aware build commands ### Enabling modules ### Initializing modules ### Build commands ### Vendoring ### `go mod download` ### `go mod verify` ### `go mod edit` ### `go clean -modcache` ### Module commands outside a module ## Retrieving modules ### `GOPROXY` protocol A [*module proxy*](#glos-module-proxy) is an HTTP server that can respond to `GET` requests for paths specified below. The requests have no query parameters, and no specific headers are required, so even a site serving from a fixed file system (including a `file://` URL) can be a module proxy. Successful HTTP responses must have the status code 200 (OK). Redirects (3xx) are followed. Responses with status codes 4xx and 5xx are treated as errors. The error codes 404 (Not Found) and 410 (Gone) indicate that the requested module or version is not available on the proxy, but it may be found elsewhere. Error responses should have content type `text/plain` with `charset` either `utf-8` or `us-ascii`. The `go` command may be configured to contact proxies or source control servers using the `GOPROXY` environment variable, which is a comma-separated list of URLs or the keywords `direct` or `off` (see [Environment variables](#environment-variables) for details). When the `go` command receives a 404 or 410 response from a proxy, it falls back to later proxies in the list. The `go` command does not fall back to later proxies in response to other 4xx and 5xx errors. This allows a proxy to act as a gatekeeper, for example, by responding with error 403 (Forbidden) for modules not on an approved list. The table below specifies queries that a module proxy must respond to. For each path, `$base` is the path portion of a proxy URL,`$module` is a module path, and `$version` is a version. For example, if the proxy URL is `https://example.com/mod`, and the client is requesting the `go.mod` file for the module `golang.org/x/text` at version `v0.3.2`, the client would send a `GET` request for `https://example.com/mod/golang.org/x/text/@v/v0.3.2.mod`. To avoid ambiguity when serving from case-insensitive file systems, the `$module` and `$version` elements are case-encoded by replacing every uppercase letter with an exclamation mark followed by the corresponding lower-case letter. This allows modules `example.com/M` and `example.com/m` to both be stored on disk, since the former is encoded as `example.com/!m`.
Path Description
$base/$module/@v/list Returns a list of known versions of the given module in plain text, one per line. This list should not include pseudo-versions.
$base/$module/@v/$version.info

Returns JSON-formatted metadata about a specific version of a module. The response must be a JSON object that corresponds to the Go data structure below: 

type Info struct {
    Version string    // version string
    Time    time.Time // commit time
}

The Version field is required and must contain a valid, canonical version (see Versions). The $version in the request path does not need to be the same version or even a valid version; this endpoint may be used to find versions for branch names or revision identifiers. However, if $version is a canonical version with a major version compatible with $module, the Version field in a successful response must be the same.

The Time field is optional. If present, it must be a string in RFC 3339 format. It indicates the time when the version was created.

More fields may be added in the future, so other names are reserved.

$base/$module/@v/$version.mod Returns the go.mod file for a specific version of a module. If the module does not have a go.mod file at the requested version, a file containing only a module statement with the requested module path must be returned. Otherwise, the original, unmodified go.mod file must be returned.
$base/$module/@v/$version.zip Returns a zip file containing the contents of a specific version of a module. See Module zip format for details on how this zip file must be formatted.
$base/$module/@latest Returns JSON-formatted metadata about the latest known version of a module in the same format as $base/$module/@v/$version.info. The latest version should be the version of the module that the go command should use if $base/$module/@v/list is empty or no listed version is suitable. This endpoint is optional, and module proxies are not required to implement it.
When resolving the latest version of a module, the `go` command will request `$base/$module/@v/list`, then, if no suitable versions are found, `$base/$module/@latest`. The `go` command prefers, in order: the semantically highest release version, the semantically highest pre-release version, and the chronologically most recent pseudo-version. In Go 1.12 and earlier, the `go` command considered pseudo-versions in `$base/$module/@v/list` to be pre-release versions, but this is no longer true since Go 1.13. A module proxy must always serve the same content for successful responses for `$base/$module/$version.mod` and `$base/$module/$version.zip` queries. This content is [cryptographically authenticated](#authenticating) using [`go.sum` files](#go.sum-file-format) and, by default, the [checksum database](#checksum-database). The `go` command caches most content it downloads from module proxies in its module cache in `$GOPATH/pkg/mod/cache/download`. Even when downloading directly from version control systems, the `go` command synthesizes explicit `info`, `mod`, and `zip` files and stores them in this directory, the same as if it had downloaded them directly from a proxy. The cache layout is the same as the proxy URL space, so serving `$GOPATH/pkg/mod/cache/download` at (or copying it to) `https://example.com/proxy` would let users access cached module versions by setting `GOPROXY` to `https://example.com/proxy`. ### Communicating with proxies ### Communicating with version control systems ### Custom import paths ### File name and path constraints ### Module zip format ### Private modules ## Authenticating modules When deciding whether to trust the source code for a module version just fetched from a proxy or origin server, the `go` command first consults the `go.sum` lines in the `go.sum` file of the current module. If the `go.sum` file does not contain an entry for that module version, then it may consult the checksum database. ### go.sum file format ### Checksum database The checksum database is a global source of `go.sum` lines. The `go` command can use this in many situations to detect misbehavior by proxies or origin servers. The checksum database allows for global consistency and reliability for all publicly available module versions. It makes untrusted proxies possible since they can't serve the wrong code without it going unnoticed. It also ensures that the bits associated with a specific version do not change from one day to the next, even if the module's author subsequently alters the tags in their repository. The checksum database is served by [sum.golang.org](https://sum.golang.org), which is run by Google. It is a [Transparent Log](https://research.swtch.com/tlog) (or “Merkle Tree”) of `go.sum` line hashes, which is backed by [Trillian](https://github.com/google/trillian). The main advantage of a Merkle tree is that independent auditors can verify that it hasn't been tampered with, so it is more trustworthy than a simple database. The `go` command interacts with the checksum database using the protocol originally outlined in [Proposal: Secure the Public Go Module Ecosystem](https://go.googlesource.com/proposal/+/master/design/25530-sumdb.md#checksum-database). The table below specifies queries that the checksum database must respond to. For each path, `$base` is the path portion of the checksum database URL, `$module` is a module path, and `$version` is a version. For example, if the checksum database URL is `https://sum.golang.org`, and the client is requesting the record for the module `golang.org/x/text` at version `v0.3.2`, the client would send a `GET` request for `https://sum.golang.org/lookup/golang.org/x/text@v0.3.2`. To avoid ambiguity when serving from case-insensitive file systems, the `$module` and `$version` elements are [case-encoded](https://pkg.go.dev/golang.org/x/mod/module#EscapePath) by replacing every uppercase letter with an exclamation mark followed by the corresponding lower-case letter. This allows modules `example.com/M` and `example.com/m` to both be stored on disk, since the former is encoded as `example.com/!m`. Parts of the path surrounded by square brakets, like `[.p/$W]` denote optional values.
Path Description
$base/latest Returns a signed, encoded tree description for the latest log. This signed description is in the form of a note, which is text that has been signed by one or more server keys and can be verified using the server's public key. The tree description provides the size of the tree and the hash of the tree head at that size. This encoding is described in golang.org/x/mod/sumdb/tlog#FormatTree.
$base/lookup/$module@$version Returns the log record number for the entry about $module at $version, followed by the data for the record (that is, the go.sum lines for $module at $version) and a signed, encoded tree description that contains the record.
$base/tile/$H/$L/$K[.p/$W] Returns a [log tile](https://research.swtch.com/tlog#serving_tiles), which is a set of hashes that make up a section of the log. Each tile is defined in a two-dimensional coordinate at tile level $L, $Kth from the left, with a tile height of $H. The optional .p/$W suffix indicates a partial log tile with only $W hashes. Clients must fall back to fetching the full tile if a partial tile is not found.
$base/tile/$H/data/$K[.p/$W] Returns the record data for the leaf hashes in /tile/$H/0/$K[.p/$W] (with a literal data path element).
If the `go` command consults the checksum database, then the first step is to retrieve the record data through the `/lookup` endpoint. If the module version is not yet recorded in the log, the checksum database will try to fetch it from the origin server before replying. This `/lookup` data provides the sum for this module version as well as its position in the log, which informs the client of which tiles should be fetched to perform proofs. The `go` command performs “inclusion” proofs (that a specific record exists in the log) and “consistency” proofs (that the tree hasn’t been tampered with) before adding new `go.sum` lines to the main module’s `go.sum` file. It's important that the data from `/lookup` should never be used without first authenticating it against the signed tree hash and authenticating the signed tree hash against the client's timeline of signed tree hashes. Signed tree hashes and new tiles served by the checksum database are stored in the module cache, so the `go` command only needs to fetch tiles that are missing. The `go` command doesn't need to directly connect to the checksum database. It can request module sums via a module proxy that [mirrors the checksum database](https://go.googlesource.com/proposal/+/master/design/25530-sumdb.md#proxying-a-checksum-database) and supports the protocol above. This can be particularly helpful for private, corporate proxies which block requests outside the organization. The `GOSUMDB` environment variable identifies the name of checksum database to use and optionally its public key and URL, as in: ``` GOSUMDB="sum.golang.org" GOSUMDB="sum.golang.org+" GOSUMDB="sum.golang.org+ https://sum.golang.org" ``` The `go` command knows the public key of `sum.golang.org`, and also that the name `sum.golang.google.cn` (available inside mainland China) connects to the `sum.golang.org` checksum database; use of any other database requires giving the public key explicitly. The URL defaults to `https://` followed by the database name. `GOSUMDB` defaults to `sum.golang.org`, the Go checksum database run by Google. See https://sum.golang.org/privacy for the service's privacy policy. If `GOSUMDB` is set to `off`, or if `go get` is invoked with the `-insecure` flag, the checksum database is not consulted, and all unrecognized modules are accepted, at the cost of giving up the security guarantee of verified repeatable downloads for all modules. A better way to bypass the checksum database for specific modules is to use the `GOPRIVATE` or `GONOSUMDB` environment variables. See [Private Modules](#private-modules) for details. The `go env -w` command can be used to [set these variables](/pkg/cmd/go/#hdr-Print_Go_environment_information) for future `go` command invocations. ## Privacy ## Environment variables ## Glossary **build list:** The list of module versions that will be used for a build command such as `go build`, `go list`, or `go test`. The build list is determined from the [main module's](#glos-main-module) [`go.mod` file](#glos-go.mod-file) and `go.mod` files in transitively required modules using [minimal version selection](#glos-minimal-version-selection). The build list contains versions for all modules in the [module graph](#glos-module-graph), not just those relevant to a specific command. **canonical version:** A correctly formatted [version](#glos-version) without a build metadata suffix other than `+incompatible`. For example, `v1.2.3` is a canonical version, but `v1.2.3+meta` is not. **`go.mod` file:** The file that defines a module's path, requirements, and other metadata. Appears in the [module's root directory](#glos-module-root-directory). See the section on [`go.mod` files](#go.mod-files). **import path:** A string used to import a package in a Go source file. Synonymous with [package path](#glos-package-path). **main module:** The module in which the `go` command is invoked. **major version:** The first number in a semantic version (`1` in `v1.2.3`). In a release with incompatible changes, the major version must be incremented, and the minor and patch versions must be set to 0. Semantic versions with major version 0 are considered unstable. **major version suffix:** A module path suffix that matches the major version number. For example, `/v2` in `example.com/mod/v2`. Major version suffixes are required at `v2.0.0` and later and are not allowed at earlier versions. See the section on [Major version suffixes](#major-version-suffixes). **minimal version selection (MVS):** The algorithm used to determine the versions of all modules that will be used in a build. See the section on [Minimal version selection](#minimal-version-selection) for details. **minor version:** The second number in a semantic version (`2` in `v1.2.3`). In a release with new, backwards compatible functionality, the minor version must be incremented, and the patch version must be set to 0. **module:** A collection of packages that are released, versioned, and distributed together. **module graph:** The directed graph of module requirements, rooted at the [main module](#glos-main-module). Each vertex in the graph is a module; each edge is a version from a `require` statement in a `go.mod` file (subject to `replace` and `exclude` statements in the main module's `go.mod` file. **module path:** A path that identifies a module and acts as a prefix for package import paths within the module. For example, `"golang.org/x/net"`. **module proxy:** A web server that implements the [`GOPROXY` protocol](#goproxy-protocol). The `go` command downloads version information, `go.mod` files, and module zip files from module proxies. **module root directory:** The directory that contains the `go.mod` file that defines a module. **package:** A collection of source files in the same directory that are compiled together. See the [Packages section](/ref/spec#Packages) in the Go Language Specification. **package path:** The path that uniquely identifies a package. A package path is a [module path](#glos-module-path) joined with a subdirectory within the module. For example `"golang.org/x/net/html"` is the package path for the package in the module `"golang.org/x/net"` in the `"html"` subdirectory. Synonym of [import path](#glos-import-path). **patch version:** The third number in a semantic version (`3` in `v1.2.3`). In a release with no changes to the module's public interface, the patch version must be incremented. **pre-release version:** A version with a dash followed by a series of dot-separated identifiers immediately following the patch version, for example, `v1.2.3-beta4`. Pre-release versions are considered unstable and are not assumed to be compatible with other versions. A pre-release version sorts before the corresponding release version: `v1.2.3-pre` comes before `v1.2.3`. See also [release version](#glos-release-version). **pseudo-version:** A version that encodes a revision identifier (such as a Git commit hash) and a timestamp from a version control system. For example, `v0.0.0-20191109021931-daa7c04131f5`. Used for [compatibility with non-module repositories](#non-module-compat) and in other situations when a tagged version is not available. **release version:** A version without a pre-release suffix. For example, `v1.2.3`, not `v1.2.3-pre`. See also [pre-release version](#glos-pre-release-version). **version:** An identifier for an immutable snapshot of a module, written as the letter `v` followed by a semantic version. See the section on [Versions](#versions).