This is a reference manual for the Go programming language. For more information and other documents, see golang.org.
Go is a general-purpose language designed with systems programming in mind. It is strongly typed and garbage-collected and has explicit support for concurrent programming. Programs are constructed from packages, whose properties allow efficient management of dependencies. The existing implementations use a traditional compile/link model to generate executable binaries.
The grammar is compact and regular, allowing for easy analysis by automatic tools such as integrated development environments.
The syntax is specified using Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF):
Production = production_name "=" [ Expression ] "." .
Expression = Alternative { "|" Alternative } .
Alternative = Term { Term } .
Term = production_name | token [ "…" token ] | Group | Option | Repetition .
Group = "(" Expression ")" .
Option = "[" Expression "]" .
Repetition = "{" Expression "}" .
Productions are expressions constructed from terms and the following operators, in increasing precedence:
| alternation
() grouping
[] option (0 or 1 times)
{} repetition (0 to n times)
Lower-case production names are used to identify lexical tokens.
Non-terminals are in CamelCase. Lexical tokens are enclosed in
double quotes "" or back quotes ``.
The form a … b represents the set of characters from
a through b as alternatives. The horizontal
ellipsis … is also used elsewhere in the spec to informally denote various
enumerations or code snippets that are not further specified. The character …
(as opposed to the three characters ...) is not a token of the Go
language.
Source code is Unicode text encoded in UTF-8. The text is not canonicalized, so a single accented code point is distinct from the same character constructed from combining an accent and a letter; those are treated as two code points. For simplicity, this document will use the unqualified term character to refer to a Unicode code point in the source text.
Each code point is distinct; for instance, upper and lower case letters are different characters.
Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a compiler may disallow the NUL character (U+0000) in the source text.
Implementation restriction: For compatibility with other tools, a compiler may ignore a UTF-8-encoded byte order mark (U+FEFF) if it is the first Unicode code point in the source text. A byte order mark may be disallowed anywhere else in the source.
The following terms are used to denote specific Unicode character classes:
newline = /* the Unicode code point U+000A */ . unicode_char = /* an arbitrary Unicode code point except newline */ . unicode_letter = /* a Unicode code point classified as "Letter" */ . unicode_digit = /* a Unicode code point classified as "Number, decimal digit" */ .
In The Unicode Standard 8.0, Section 4.5 "General Category" defines a set of character categories. Go treats all characters in any of the Letter categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, or Lo as Unicode letters, and those in the Number category Nd as Unicode digits.
The underscore character _ (U+005F) is considered a letter.
letter = unicode_letter | "_" . decimal_digit = "0" … "9" . octal_digit = "0" … "7" . hex_digit = "0" … "9" | "A" … "F" | "a" … "f" .
Comments serve as program documentation. There are two forms:
//
and stop at the end of the line.
/*
and stop with the first subsequent character sequence */.
A comment cannot start inside a rune or string literal, or inside a comment. A general comment containing no newlines acts like a space. Any other comment acts like a newline.
Tokens form the vocabulary of the Go language. There are four classes: identifiers, keywords, operators and punctuation, and literals. White space, formed from spaces (U+0020), horizontal tabs (U+0009), carriage returns (U+000D), and newlines (U+000A), is ignored except as it separates tokens that would otherwise combine into a single token. Also, a newline or end of file may trigger the insertion of a semicolon. While breaking the input into tokens, the next token is the longest sequence of characters that form a valid token.
The formal grammar uses semicolons ";" as terminators in
a number of productions. Go programs may omit most of these semicolons
using the following two rules:
break,
continue,
fallthrough, or
return
++,
--,
),
], or
}
")" or "}".
To reflect idiomatic use, code examples in this document elide semicolons using these rules.
Identifiers name program entities such as variables and types. An identifier is a sequence of one or more letters and digits. The first character in an identifier must be a letter.
identifier = letter { letter | unicode_digit } .
a _x9 ThisVariableIsExported αβ
Some identifiers are predeclared.
The following keywords are reserved and may not be used as identifiers.
break default func interface select case defer go map struct chan else goto package switch const fallthrough if range type continue for import return var
The following character sequences represent operators (including assignment operators) and punctuation:
+ & += &= && == != ( )
- | -= |= || < <= [ ]
* ^ *= ^= <- > >= { }
/ << /= <<= ++ = := , ;
% >> %= >>= -- ! ... . :
&^ &^=
An integer literal is a sequence of digits representing an
integer constant.
An optional prefix sets a non-decimal base: 0 for octal, 0x or
0X for hexadecimal. In hexadecimal literals, letters
a-f and A-F represent values 10 through 15.
int_lit = decimal_lit | octal_lit | hex_lit .
decimal_lit = ( "1" … "9" ) { decimal_digit } .
octal_lit = "0" { octal_digit } .
hex_lit = "0" ( "x" | "X" ) hex_digit { hex_digit } .
42 0600 0xBadFace 170141183460469231731687303715884105727
A floating-point literal is a decimal representation of a
floating-point constant.
It has an integer part, a decimal point, a fractional part,
and an exponent part. The integer and fractional part comprise
decimal digits; the exponent part is an e or E
followed by an optionally signed decimal exponent. One of the
integer part or the fractional part may be elided; one of the decimal
point or the exponent may be elided.
float_lit = decimals "." [ decimals ] [ exponent ] |
decimals exponent |
"." decimals [ exponent ] .
decimals = decimal_digit { decimal_digit } .
exponent = ( "e" | "E" ) [ "+" | "-" ] decimals .
0. 72.40 072.40 // == 72.40 2.71828 1.e+0 6.67428e-11 1E6 .25 .12345E+5
An imaginary literal is a decimal representation of the imaginary part of a
complex constant.
It consists of a
floating-point literal
or decimal integer followed
by the lower-case letter i.
imaginary_lit = (decimals | float_lit) "i" .
0i 011i // == 11i 0.i 2.71828i 1.e+0i 6.67428e-11i 1E6i .25i .12345E+5i
A rune literal represents a rune constant,
an integer value identifying a Unicode code point.
A rune literal is expressed as one or more characters enclosed in single quotes,
as in 'x' or '\n'.
Within the quotes, any character may appear except newline and unescaped single
quote. A single quoted character represents the Unicode value
of the character itself,
while multi-character sequences beginning with a backslash encode
values in various formats.
The simplest form represents the single character within the quotes;
since Go source text is Unicode characters encoded in UTF-8, multiple
UTF-8-encoded bytes may represent a single integer value. For
instance, the literal 'a' holds a single byte representing
a literal a, Unicode U+0061, value 0x61, while
'ä' holds two bytes (0xc3 0xa4) representing
a literal a-dieresis, U+00E4, value 0xe4.
Several backslash escapes allow arbitrary values to be encoded as
ASCII text. There are four ways to represent the integer value
as a numeric constant: \x followed by exactly two hexadecimal
digits; \u followed by exactly four hexadecimal digits;
\U followed by exactly eight hexadecimal digits, and a
plain backslash \ followed by exactly three octal digits.
In each case the value of the literal is the value represented by
the digits in the corresponding base.
Although these representations all result in an integer, they have
different valid ranges. Octal escapes must represent a value between
0 and 255 inclusive. Hexadecimal escapes satisfy this condition
by construction. The escapes \u and \U
represent Unicode code points so within them some values are illegal,
in particular those above 0x10FFFF and surrogate halves.
After a backslash, certain single-character escapes represent special values:
\a U+0007 alert or bell \b U+0008 backspace \f U+000C form feed \n U+000A line feed or newline \r U+000D carriage return \t U+0009 horizontal tab \v U+000b vertical tab \\ U+005c backslash \' U+0027 single quote (valid escape only within rune literals) \" U+0022 double quote (valid escape only within string literals)
All other sequences starting with a backslash are illegal inside rune literals.
rune_lit = "'" ( unicode_value | byte_value ) "'" .
unicode_value = unicode_char | little_u_value | big_u_value | escaped_char .
byte_value = octal_byte_value | hex_byte_value .
octal_byte_value = `\` octal_digit octal_digit octal_digit .
hex_byte_value = `\` "x" hex_digit hex_digit .
little_u_value = `\` "u" hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit .
big_u_value = `\` "U" hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit
hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit hex_digit .
escaped_char = `\` ( "a" | "b" | "f" | "n" | "r" | "t" | "v" | `\` | "'" | `"` ) .
'a' 'ä' '本' '\t' '\000' '\007' '\377' '\x07' '\xff' '\u12e4' '\U00101234' '\'' // rune literal containing single quote character 'aa' // illegal: too many characters '\xa' // illegal: too few hexadecimal digits '\0' // illegal: too few octal digits '\uDFFF' // illegal: surrogate half '\U00110000' // illegal: invalid Unicode code point
A string literal represents a string constant obtained from concatenating a sequence of characters. There are two forms: raw string literals and interpreted string literals.
Raw string literals are character sequences between back quotes, as in
`foo`. Within the quotes, any character may appear except
back quote. The value of a raw string literal is the
string composed of the uninterpreted (implicitly UTF-8-encoded) characters
between the quotes;
in particular, backslashes have no special meaning and the string may
contain newlines.
Carriage return characters ('\r') inside raw string literals
are discarded from the raw string value.
Interpreted string literals are character sequences between double
quotes, as in "bar".
Within the quotes, any character may appear except newline and unescaped double quote.
The text between the quotes forms the
value of the literal, with backslash escapes interpreted as they
are in rune literals (except that \' is illegal and
\" is legal), with the same restrictions.
The three-digit octal (\nnn)
and two-digit hexadecimal (\xnn) escapes represent individual
bytes of the resulting string; all other escapes represent
the (possibly multi-byte) UTF-8 encoding of individual characters.
Thus inside a string literal \377 and \xFF represent
a single byte of value 0xFF=255, while ÿ,
\u00FF, \U000000FF and \xc3\xbf represent
the two bytes 0xc3 0xbf of the UTF-8 encoding of character
U+00FF.
string_lit = raw_string_lit | interpreted_string_lit .
raw_string_lit = "`" { unicode_char | newline } "`" .
interpreted_string_lit = `"` { unicode_value | byte_value } `"` .
`abc` // same as "abc" `\n \n` // same as "\\n\n\\n" "\n" "\"" // same as `"` "Hello, world!\n" "日本語" "\u65e5本\U00008a9e" "\xff\u00FF" "\uD800" // illegal: surrogate half "\U00110000" // illegal: invalid Unicode code point
These examples all represent the same string:
"日本語" // UTF-8 input text `日本語` // UTF-8 input text as a raw literal "\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e" // the explicit Unicode code points "\U000065e5\U0000672c\U00008a9e" // the explicit Unicode code points "\xe6\x97\xa5\xe6\x9c\xac\xe8\xaa\x9e" // the explicit UTF-8 bytes
If the source code represents a character as two code points, such as a combining form involving an accent and a letter, the result will be an error if placed in a rune literal (it is not a single code point), and will appear as two code points if placed in a string literal.
There are boolean constants, rune constants, integer constants, floating-point constants, complex constants, and string constants. Rune, integer, floating-point, and complex constants are collectively called numeric constants.
A constant value is represented by a
rune,
integer,
floating-point,
imaginary,
or
string literal,
an identifier denoting a constant,
a constant expression,
a conversion with a result that is a constant, or
the result value of some built-in functions such as
unsafe.Sizeof applied to any value,
cap or len applied to
some expressions,
real and imag applied to a complex constant
and complex applied to numeric constants.
The boolean truth values are represented by the predeclared constants
true and false. The predeclared identifier
iota denotes an integer constant.
In general, complex constants are a form of constant expression and are discussed in that section.
Numeric constants represent exact values of arbitrary precision and do not overflow. Consequently, there are no constants denoting the IEEE-754 negative zero, infinity, and not-a-number values.
Constants may be typed or untyped.
Literal constants, true, false, iota,
and certain constant expressions
containing only untyped constant operands are untyped.
A constant may be given a type explicitly by a constant declaration
or conversion, or implicitly when used in a
variable declaration or an
assignment or as an
operand in an expression.
It is an error if the constant value
cannot be represented as a value of the respective type.
For instance, 3.0 can be given any integer or any
floating-point type, while 2147483648.0 (equal to 1<<31)
can be given the types float32, float64, or uint32 but
not int32 or string.
An untyped constant has a default type which is the type to which the
constant is implicitly converted in contexts where a typed value is required,
for instance, in a short variable declaration
such as i := 0 where there is no explicit type.
The default type of an untyped constant is bool, rune,
int, float64, complex128 or string
respectively, depending on whether it is a boolean, rune, integer, floating-point,
complex, or string constant.
Implementation restriction: Although numeric constants have arbitrary precision in the language, a compiler may implement them using an internal representation with limited precision. That said, every implementation must:
These requirements apply both to literal constants and to the result of evaluating constant expressions.
A variable is a storage location for holding a value. The set of permissible values is determined by the variable's type.
A variable declaration
or, for function parameters and results, the signature
of a function declaration
or function literal reserves
storage for a named variable.
Calling the built-in function new
or taking the address of a composite literal
allocates storage for a variable at run time.
Such an anonymous variable is referred to via a (possibly implicit)
pointer indirection.
Structured variables of array, slice, and struct types have elements and fields that may be addressed individually. Each such element acts like a variable.
The static type (or just type) of a variable is the
type given in its declaration, the type provided in the
new call or composite literal, or the type of
an element of a structured variable.
Variables of interface type also have a distinct dynamic type,
which is the concrete type of the value assigned to the variable at run time
(unless the value is the predeclared identifier nil,
which has no type).
The dynamic type may vary during execution but values stored in interface
variables are always assignable
to the static type of the variable.
var x interface{} // x is nil and has static type interface{}
var v *T // v has value nil, static type *T
x = 42 // x has value 42 and dynamic type int
x = v // x has value (*T)(nil) and dynamic type *T
A variable's value is retrieved by referring to the variable in an expression; it is the most recent value assigned to the variable. If a variable has not yet been assigned a value, its value is the zero value for its type.
A type determines a set of values together with operations and methods specific to those values. A type may be denoted by a type name, if it has one, or specified using a type literal, which composes a type from existing types.
Type = TypeName | TypeLit | "(" Type ")" .
TypeName = identifier | QualifiedIdent .
TypeLit = ArrayType | StructType | PointerType | FunctionType | InterfaceType |
SliceType | MapType | ChannelType .
Named instances of the boolean, numeric, and string types are predeclared. Other named types are introduced with type declarations. Composite types—array, struct, pointer, function, interface, slice, map, and channel types—may be constructed using type literals.
Each type T has an underlying type: If T
is one of the predeclared boolean, numeric, or string types, or a type literal,
the corresponding underlying
type is T itself. Otherwise, T's underlying type
is the underlying type of the type to which T refers in its
type declaration.
type ( A1 = string A2 = A1 ) type ( B1 string B2 B1 B3 []B1 B4 B3 )
The underlying type of string, A1, A2, B1,
and B2 is string.
The underlying type of []B1, B3, and B4 is []B1.
A type may have a method set associated with it.
The method set of an interface type is its interface.
The method set of any other type T consists of all
methods declared with receiver type T.
The method set of the corresponding pointer type *T
is the set of all methods declared with receiver *T or T
(that is, it also contains the method set of T).
Further rules apply to structs containing embedded fields, as described
in the section on struct types.
Any other type has an empty method set.
In a method set, each method must have a
unique
non-blank method name.
The method set of a type determines the interfaces that the type implements and the methods that can be called using a receiver of that type.
A boolean type represents the set of Boolean truth values
denoted by the predeclared constants true
and false. The predeclared boolean type is bool.
A numeric type represents sets of integer or floating-point values. The predeclared architecture-independent numeric types are:
uint8 the set of all unsigned 8-bit integers (0 to 255) uint16 the set of all unsigned 16-bit integers (0 to 65535) uint32 the set of all unsigned 32-bit integers (0 to 4294967295) uint64 the set of all unsigned 64-bit integers (0 to 18446744073709551615) int8 the set of all signed 8-bit integers (-128 to 127) int16 the set of all signed 16-bit integers (-32768 to 32767) int32 the set of all signed 32-bit integers (-2147483648 to 2147483647) int64 the set of all signed 64-bit integers (-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807) float32 the set of all IEEE-754 32-bit floating-point numbers float64 the set of all IEEE-754 64-bit floating-point numbers complex64 the set of all complex numbers with float32 real and imaginary parts complex128 the set of all complex numbers with float64 real and imaginary parts byte alias for uint8 rune alias for int32
The value of an n-bit integer is n bits wide and represented using two's complement arithmetic.
There is also a set of predeclared numeric types with implementation-specific sizes:
uint either 32 or 64 bits int same size as uint uintptr an unsigned integer large enough to store the uninterpreted bits of a pointer value
To avoid portability issues all numeric types are distinct except
byte, which is an alias for uint8, and
rune, which is an alias for int32.
Conversions
are required when different numeric types are mixed in an expression
or assignment. For instance, int32 and int
are not the same type even though they may have the same size on a
particular architecture.
A string type represents the set of string values.
A string value is a (possibly empty) sequence of bytes.
Strings are immutable: once created,
it is impossible to change the contents of a string.
The predeclared string type is string.
The length of a string s (its size in bytes) can be discovered using
the built-in function len.
The length is a compile-time constant if the string is a constant.
A string's bytes can be accessed by integer indices
0 through len(s)-1.
It is illegal to take the address of such an element; if
s[i] is the i'th byte of a
string, &s[i] is invalid.
An array is a numbered sequence of elements of a single type, called the element type. The number of elements is called the length and is never negative.
ArrayType = "[" ArrayLength "]" ElementType . ArrayLength = Expression . ElementType = Type .
The length is part of the array's type; it must evaluate to a
non-negative constant representable by a value
of type int.
The length of array a can be discovered
using the built-in function len.
The elements can be addressed by integer indices
0 through len(a)-1.
Array types are always one-dimensional but may be composed to form
multi-dimensional types.
[32]byte
[2*N] struct { x, y int32 }
[1000]*float64
[3][5]int
[2][2][2]float64 // same as [2]([2]([2]float64))
A slice is a descriptor for a contiguous segment of an underlying array and
provides access to a numbered sequence of elements from that array.
A slice type denotes the set of all slices of arrays of its element type.
The value of an uninitialized slice is nil.
SliceType = "[" "]" ElementType .
Like arrays, slices are indexable and have a length. The length of a
slice s can be discovered by the built-in function
len; unlike with arrays it may change during
execution. The elements can be addressed by integer indices
0 through len(s)-1. The slice index of a
given element may be less than the index of the same element in the
underlying array.
A slice, once initialized, is always associated with an underlying array that holds its elements. A slice therefore shares storage with its array and with other slices of the same array; by contrast, distinct arrays always represent distinct storage.
The array underlying a slice may extend past the end of the slice.
The capacity is a measure of that extent: it is the sum of
the length of the slice and the length of the array beyond the slice;
a slice of length up to that capacity can be created by
slicing a new one from the original slice.
The capacity of a slice a can be discovered using the
built-in function cap(a).
A new, initialized slice value for a given element type T is
made using the built-in function
make,
which takes a slice type
and parameters specifying the length and optionally the capacity.
A slice created with make always allocates a new, hidden array
to which the returned slice value refers. That is, executing
make([]T, length, capacity)
produces the same slice as allocating an array and slicing it, so these two expressions are equivalent:
make([]int, 50, 100) new([100]int)[0:50]
Like arrays, slices are always one-dimensional but may be composed to construct higher-dimensional objects. With arrays of arrays, the inner arrays are, by construction, always the same length; however with slices of slices (or arrays of slices), the inner lengths may vary dynamically. Moreover, the inner slices must be initialized individually.
A struct is a sequence of named elements, called fields, each of which has a name and a type. Field names may be specified explicitly (IdentifierList) or implicitly (EmbeddedField). Within a struct, non-blank field names must be unique.
StructType = "struct" "{" { FieldDecl ";" } "}" .
FieldDecl = (IdentifierList Type | EmbeddedField) [ Tag ] .
EmbeddedField = [ "*" ] TypeName .
Tag = string_lit .
// An empty struct.
struct {}
// A struct with 6 fields.
struct {
x, y int
u float32
_ float32 // padding
A *[]int
F func()
}
A field declared with a type but no explicit field name is called an embedded field.
An embedded field must be specified as
a type name T or as a pointer to a non-interface type name *T,
and T itself may not be
a pointer type. The unqualified type name acts as the field name.
// A struct with four embedded fields of types T1, *T2, P.T3 and *P.T4
struct {
T1 // field name is T1
*T2 // field name is T2
P.T3 // field name is T3
*P.T4 // field name is T4
x, y int // field names are x and y
}
The following declaration is illegal because field names must be unique in a struct type:
struct {
T // conflicts with embedded field *T and *P.T
*T // conflicts with embedded field T and *P.T
*P.T // conflicts with embedded field T and *T
}
A field or method f of an
embedded field in a struct x is called promoted if
x.f is a legal selector that denotes
that field or method f.
Promoted fields act like ordinary fields of a struct except that they cannot be used as field names in composite literals of the struct.
Given a struct type S and a type named T,
promoted methods are included in the method set of the struct as follows:
S contains an embedded field T,
the method sets of S
and *S both include promoted methods with receiver
T. The method set of *S also
includes promoted methods with receiver *T.
S contains an embedded field *T,
the method sets of S and *S both
include promoted methods with receiver T or
*T.
A field declaration may be followed by an optional string literal tag, which becomes an attribute for all the fields in the corresponding field declaration. An empty tag string is equivalent to an absent tag. The tags are made visible through a reflection interface and take part in type identity for structs but are otherwise ignored.
struct {
x, y float64 "" // an empty tag string is like an absent tag
name string "any string is permitted as a tag"
_ [4]byte "ceci n'est pas un champ de structure"
}
// A struct corresponding to a TimeStamp protocol buffer.
// The tag strings define the protocol buffer field numbers;
// they follow the convention outlined by the reflect package.
struct {
microsec uint64 `protobuf:"1"`
serverIP6 uint64 `protobuf:"2"`
}
A pointer type denotes the set of all pointers to variables of a given
type, called the base type of the pointer.
The value of an uninitialized pointer is nil.
PointerType = "*" BaseType . BaseType = Type .
*Point *[4]int
A function type denotes the set of all functions with the same parameter
and result types. The value of an uninitialized variable of function type
is nil.
FunctionType = "func" Signature .
Signature = Parameters [ Result ] .
Result = Parameters | Type .
Parameters = "(" [ ParameterList [ "," ] ] ")" .
ParameterList = ParameterDecl { "," ParameterDecl } .
ParameterDecl = [ IdentifierList ] [ "..." ] Type .
Within a list of parameters or results, the names (IdentifierList) must either all be present or all be absent. If present, each name stands for one item (parameter or result) of the specified type and all non-blank names in the signature must be unique. If absent, each type stands for one item of that type. Parameter and result lists are always parenthesized except that if there is exactly one unnamed result it may be written as an unparenthesized type.
The final incoming parameter in a function signature may have
a type prefixed with ....
A function with such a parameter is called variadic and
may be invoked with zero or more arguments for that parameter.
func()
func(x int) int
func(a, _ int, z float32) bool
func(a, b int, z float32) (bool)
func(prefix string, values ...int)
func(a, b int, z float64, opt ...interface{}) (success bool)
func(int, int, float64) (float64, *[]int)
func(n int) func(p *T)
An interface type specifies a method set called its interface.
A variable of interface type can store a value of any type with a method set
that is any superset of the interface. Such a type is said to
implement the interface.
The value of an uninitialized variable of interface type is nil.
InterfaceType = "interface" "{" { MethodSpec ";" } "}" .
MethodSpec = MethodName Signature | InterfaceTypeName .
MethodName = identifier .
InterfaceTypeName = TypeName .
As with all method sets, in an interface type, each method must have a unique non-blank name.
// A simple File interface
interface {
Read(b Buffer) bool
Write(b Buffer) bool
Close()
}
More than one type may implement an interface.
For instance, if two types S1 and S2
have the method set
func (p T) Read(b Buffer) bool { return … }
func (p T) Write(b Buffer) bool { return … }
func (p T) Close() { … }
(where T stands for either S1 or S2)
then the File interface is implemented by both S1 and
S2, regardless of what other methods
S1 and S2 may have or share.
A type implements any interface comprising any subset of its methods and may therefore implement several distinct interfaces. For instance, all types implement the empty interface:
interface{}
Similarly, consider this interface specification,
which appears within a type declaration
to define an interface called Locker:
type Locker interface {
Lock()
Unlock()
}
If S1 and S2 also implement
func (p T) Lock() { … }
func (p T) Unlock() { … }
they implement the Locker interface as well
as the File interface.
An interface T may use a (possibly qualified) interface type
name E in place of a method specification. This is called
embedding interface E in T; it adds
all (exported and non-exported) methods of E to the interface
T.
type ReadWriter interface {
Read(b Buffer) bool
Write(b Buffer) bool
}
type File interface {
ReadWriter // same as adding the methods of ReadWriter
Locker // same as adding the methods of Locker
Close()
}
type LockedFile interface {
Locker
File // illegal: Lock, Unlock not unique
Lock() // illegal: Lock not unique
}
An interface type T may not embed itself
or any interface type that embeds T, recursively.
// illegal: Bad cannot embed itself
type Bad interface {
Bad
}
// illegal: Bad1 cannot embed itself using Bad2
type Bad1 interface {
Bad2
}
type Bad2 interface {
Bad1
}
A map is an unordered group of elements of one type, called the
element type, indexed by a set of unique keys of another type,
called the key type.
The value of an uninitialized map is nil.
MapType = "map" "[" KeyType "]" ElementType . KeyType = Type .
The comparison operators
== and != must be fully defined
for operands of the key type; thus the key type must not be a function, map, or
slice.
If the key type is an interface type, these
comparison operators must be defined for the dynamic key values;
failure will cause a run-time panic.
map[string]int
map[*T]struct{ x, y float64 }
map[string]interface{}
The number of map elements is called its length.
For a map m, it can be discovered using the
built-in function len
and may change during execution. Elements may be added during execution
using assignments and retrieved with
index expressions; they may be removed with the
delete built-in function.
A new, empty map value is made using the built-in
function make,
which takes the map type and an optional capacity hint as arguments:
make(map[string]int) make(map[string]int, 100)
The initial capacity does not bound its size:
maps grow to accommodate the number of items
stored in them, with the exception of nil maps.
A nil map is equivalent to an empty map except that no elements
may be added.
A channel provides a mechanism for
concurrently executing functions
to communicate by
sending and
receiving
values of a specified element type.
The value of an uninitialized channel is nil.
ChannelType = ( "chan" | "chan" "<-" | "<-" "chan" ) ElementType .
The optional <- operator specifies the channel direction,
send or receive. If no direction is given, the channel is
bidirectional.
A channel may be constrained only to send or only to receive by
conversion or assignment.
chan T // can be used to send and receive values of type T chan<- float64 // can only be used to send float64s <-chan int // can only be used to receive ints
The <- operator associates with the leftmost chan
possible:
chan<- chan int // same as chan<- (chan int) chan<- <-chan int // same as chan<- (<-chan int) <-chan <-chan int // same as <-chan (<-chan int) chan (<-chan int)
A new, initialized channel
value can be made using the built-in function
make,
which takes the channel type and an optional capacity as arguments:
make(chan int, 100)
The capacity, in number of elements, sets the size of the buffer in the channel.
If the capacity is zero or absent, the channel is unbuffered and communication
succeeds only when both a sender and receiver are ready. Otherwise, the channel
is buffered and communication succeeds without blocking if the buffer
is not full (sends) or not empty (receives).
A nil channel is never ready for communication.
A channel may be closed with the built-in function
close.
The multi-valued assignment form of the
receive operator
reports whether a received value was sent before
the channel was closed.
A single channel may be used in
send statements,
receive operations,
and calls to the built-in functions
cap and
len
by any number of goroutines without further synchronization.
Channels act as first-in-first-out queues.
For example, if one goroutine sends values on a channel
and a second goroutine receives them, the values are
received in the order sent.
Two types are either identical or different.
A defined type is always different from any other type. Otherwise, two types are identical if their underlying type literals are structurally equivalent; that is, they have the same literal structure and corresponding components have identical types. In detail:
Given the declarations
type (
A0 = []string
A1 = A0
A2 = struct{ a, b int }
A3 = int
A4 = func(A3, float64) *A0
A5 = func(x int, _ float64) *[]string
)
type (
B0 A0
B1 []string
B2 struct{ a, b int }
B3 struct{ a, c int }
B4 func(int, float64) *B0
B5 func(x int, y float64) *A1
)
type C0 = B0
these types are identical:
A0, A1, and []string
A2 and struct{ a, b int }
A3 and int
A4, func(int, float64) *[]string, and A5
B0, B0, and C0
[]int and []int
struct{ a, b *T5 } and struct{ a, b *T5 }
func(x int, y float64) *[]string, func(int, float64) (result *[]string), and A5
B0 and B1 are different because they are new types
created by distinct type definitions;
func(int, float64) *B0 and func(x int, y float64) *[]string
are different because B0 is different from []string.
A value x is assignable to a variable of type T
("x is assignable to T") in any of these cases:
x's type is identical to T.
x's type V and T have identical
underlying types and at least one of V
or T is not a defined type.
T is an interface type and
x implements T.
x is a bidirectional channel value, T is a channel type,
x's type V and T have identical element types,
and at least one of V or T is not a defined type.
x is the predeclared identifier nil and T
is a pointer, function, slice, map, channel, or interface type.
x is an untyped constant representable
by a value of type T.
A block is a possibly empty sequence of declarations and statements within matching brace brackets.
Block = "{" StatementList "}" .
StatementList = { Statement ";" } .
In addition to explicit blocks in the source code, there are implicit blocks:
Blocks nest and influence scoping.
A declaration binds a non-blank identifier to a constant, type, variable, function, label, or package. Every identifier in a program must be declared. No identifier may be declared twice in the same block, and no identifier may be declared in both the file and package block.
The blank identifier may be used like any other identifier
in a declaration, but it does not introduce a binding and thus is not declared.
In the package block, the identifier init may only be used for
init function declarations,
and like the blank identifier it does not introduce a new binding.
Declaration = ConstDecl | TypeDecl | VarDecl . TopLevelDecl = Declaration | FunctionDecl | MethodDecl .
The scope of a declared identifier is the extent of source text in which the identifier denotes the specified constant, type, variable, function, label, or package.
Go is lexically scoped using blocks:
An identifier declared in a block may be redeclared in an inner block. While the identifier of the inner declaration is in scope, it denotes the entity declared by the inner declaration.
The package clause is not a declaration; the package name does not appear in any scope. Its purpose is to identify the files belonging to the same package and to specify the default package name for import declarations.
Labels are declared by labeled statements and are used in the "break", "continue", and "goto" statements. It is illegal to define a label that is never used. In contrast to other identifiers, labels are not block scoped and do not conflict with identifiers that are not labels. The scope of a label is the body of the function in which it is declared and excludes the body of any nested function.
The blank identifier is represented by the underscore character _.
It serves as an anonymous placeholder instead of a regular (non-blank)
identifier and has special meaning in declarations,
as an operand, and in assignments.
The following identifiers are implicitly declared in the universe block:
Types: bool byte complex64 complex128 error float32 float64 int int8 int16 int32 int64 rune string uint uint8 uint16 uint32 uint64 uintptr Constants: true false iota Zero value: nil Functions: append cap close complex copy delete imag len make new panic print println real recover
An identifier may be exported to permit access to it from another package. An identifier is exported if both:
All other identifiers are not exported.
Given a set of identifiers, an identifier is called unique if it is different from every other in the set. Two identifiers are different if they are spelled differently, or if they appear in different packages and are not exported. Otherwise, they are the same.
A constant declaration binds a list of identifiers (the names of the constants) to the values of a list of constant expressions. The number of identifiers must be equal to the number of expressions, and the nth identifier on the left is bound to the value of the nth expression on the right.
ConstDecl = "const" ( ConstSpec | "(" { ConstSpec ";" } ")" ) .
ConstSpec = IdentifierList [ [ Type ] "=" ExpressionList ] .
IdentifierList = identifier { "," identifier } .
ExpressionList = Expression { "," Expression } .
If the type is present, all constants take the type specified, and the expressions must be assignable to that type. If the type is omitted, the constants take the individual types of the corresponding expressions. If the expression values are untyped constants, the declared constants remain untyped and the constant identifiers denote the constant values. For instance, if the expression is a floating-point literal, the constant identifier denotes a floating-point constant, even if the literal's fractional part is zero.
const Pi float64 = 3.14159265358979323846 const zero = 0.0 // untyped floating-point constant const ( size int64 = 1024 eof = -1 // untyped integer constant ) const a, b, c = 3, 4, "foo" // a = 3, b = 4, c = "foo", untyped integer and string constants const u, v float32 = 0, 3 // u = 0.0, v = 3.0
Within a parenthesized const declaration list the
expression list may be omitted from any but the first declaration.
Such an empty list is equivalent to the textual substitution of the
first preceding non-empty expression list and its type if any.
Omitting the list of expressions is therefore equivalent to
repeating the previous list. The number of identifiers must be equal
to the number of expressions in the previous list.
Together with the iota constant generator
this mechanism permits light-weight declaration of sequential values:
const ( Sunday = iota Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Partyday numberOfDays // this constant is not exported )
Within a constant declaration, the predeclared identifier
iota represents successive untyped integer
constants. It is reset to 0 whenever the reserved word const
appears in the source and increments after each ConstSpec.
It can be used to construct a set of related constants:
const ( // iota is reset to 0 c0 = iota // c0 == 0 c1 = iota // c1 == 1 c2 = iota // c2 == 2 ) const ( // iota is reset to 0 a = 1 << iota // a == 1 b = 1 << iota // b == 2 c = 3 // c == 3 (iota is not used but still incremented) d = 1 << iota // d == 8 ) const ( // iota is reset to 0 u = iota * 42 // u == 0 (untyped integer constant) v float64 = iota * 42 // v == 42.0 (float64 constant) w = iota * 42 // w == 84 (untyped integer constant) ) const x = iota // x == 0 (iota has been reset) const y = iota // y == 0 (iota has been reset)
Within an ExpressionList, the value of each iota is the same because
it is only incremented after each ConstSpec:
const ( bit0, mask0 = 1 << iota, 1<<iota - 1 // bit0 == 1, mask0 == 0 bit1, mask1 // bit1 == 2, mask1 == 1 _, _ // skips iota == 2 bit3, mask3 // bit3 == 8, mask3 == 7 )
This last example exploits the implicit repetition of the last non-empty expression list.
A type declaration binds an identifier, the type name, to a type. Type declarations come in two forms: alias declarations and type definitions.
TypeDecl = "type" ( TypeSpec | "(" { TypeSpec ";" } ")" ) .
TypeSpec = AliasDecl | TypeDef .
An alias declaration binds an identifier to the given type.
AliasDecl = identifier "=" Type .
Within the scope of the identifier, it serves as an alias for the type.
type ( nodeList = []*Node // nodeList and []*Node are identical types Polar = polar // Polar and polar denote identical types )
A type definition creates a new, distinct type with the same underlying type and operations as the given type, and binds an identifier to it.
TypeDef = identifier Type .
The new type is called a defined type. It is different from any other type, including the type it is created from.
type (
Point struct{ x, y float64 } // Point and struct{ x, y float64 } are different types
polar Point // polar and Point denote different types
)
type TreeNode struct {
left, right *TreeNode
value *Comparable
}
type Block interface {
BlockSize() int
Encrypt(src, dst []byte)
Decrypt(src, dst []byte)
}
A defined type may have methods associated with it. It does not inherit any methods bound to the given type, but the method set of an interface type or of elements of a composite type remains unchanged:
// A Mutex is a data type with two methods, Lock and Unlock.
type Mutex struct { /* Mutex fields */ }
func (m *Mutex) Lock() { /* Lock implementation */ }
func (m *Mutex) Unlock() { /* Unlock implementation */ }
// NewMutex has the same composition as Mutex but its method set is empty.
type NewMutex Mutex
// The method set of the base type of PtrMutex remains unchanged,
// but the method set of PtrMutex is empty.
type PtrMutex *Mutex
// The method set of *PrintableMutex contains the methods
// Lock and Unlock bound to its embedded field Mutex.
type PrintableMutex struct {
Mutex
}
// MyBlock is an interface type that has the same method set as Block.
type MyBlock Block
Type definitions may be used to define different boolean, numeric, or string types and associate methods with them:
type TimeZone int
const (
EST TimeZone = -(5 + iota)
CST
MST
PST
)
func (tz TimeZone) String() string {
return fmt.Sprintf("GMT%+dh", tz)
}
A variable declaration creates one or more variables, binds corresponding identifiers to them, and gives each a type and an initial value.
VarDecl = "var" ( VarSpec | "(" { VarSpec ";" } ")" ) .
VarSpec = IdentifierList ( Type [ "=" ExpressionList ] | "=" ExpressionList ) .
var i int var U, V, W float64 var k = 0 var x, y float32 = -1, -2 var ( i int u, v, s = 2.0, 3.0, "bar" ) var re, im = complexSqrt(-1) var _, found = entries[name] // map lookup; only interested in "found"
If a list of expressions is given, the variables are initialized with the expressions following the rules for assignments. Otherwise, each variable is initialized to its zero value.
If a type is present, each variable is given that type.
Otherwise, each variable is given the type of the corresponding
initialization value in the assignment.
If that value is an untyped constant, it is first
converted to its default type;
if it is an untyped boolean value, it is first converted to type bool.
The predeclared value nil cannot be used to initialize a variable
with no explicit type.
var d = math.Sin(0.5) // d is float64 var i = 42 // i is int var t, ok = x.(T) // t is T, ok is bool var n = nil // illegal
Implementation restriction: A compiler may make it illegal to declare a variable inside a function body if the variable is never used.
A short variable declaration uses the syntax:
ShortVarDecl = IdentifierList ":=" ExpressionList .
It is shorthand for a regular variable declaration with initializer expressions but no types:
"var" IdentifierList = ExpressionList .
i, j := 0, 10
f := func() int { return 7 }
ch := make(chan int)
r, w := os.Pipe(fd) // os.Pipe() returns two values
_, y, _ := coord(p) // coord() returns three values; only interested in y coordinate
Unlike regular variable declarations, a short variable declaration may redeclare variables provided they were originally declared earlier in the same block (or the parameter lists if the block is the function body) with the same type, and at least one of the non-blank variables is new. As a consequence, redeclaration can only appear in a multi-variable short declaration. Redeclaration does not introduce a new variable; it just assigns a new value to the original.
field1, offset := nextField(str, 0) field2, offset := nextField(str, offset) // redeclares offset a, a := 1, 2 // illegal: double declaration of a or no new variable if a was declared elsewhere
Short variable declarations may appear only inside functions. In some contexts such as the initializers for "if", "for", or "switch" statements, they can be used to declare local temporary variables.
A function declaration binds an identifier, the function name, to a function.
FunctionDecl = "func" FunctionName ( Function | Signature ) . FunctionName = identifier . Function = Signature FunctionBody . FunctionBody = Block .
If the function's signature declares result parameters, the function body's statement list must end in a terminating statement.
func IndexRune(s string, r rune) int {
for i, c := range s {
if c == r {
return i
}
}
// invalid: missing return statement
}
A function declaration may omit the body. Such a declaration provides the signature for a function implemented outside Go, such as an assembly routine.
func min(x int, y int) int {
if x < y {
return x
}
return y
}
func flushICache(begin, end uintptr) // implemented externally
A method is a function with a receiver. A method declaration binds an identifier, the method name, to a method, and associates the method with the receiver's base type.
MethodDecl = "func" Receiver MethodName ( Function | Signature ) . Receiver = Parameters .
The receiver is specified via an extra parameter section preceding the method
name. That parameter section must declare a single non-variadic parameter, the receiver.
Its type must be of the form T or *T (possibly using
parentheses) where T is a type name. The type denoted by T is called
the receiver base type; it must not be a pointer or interface type and
it must be defined in the same package as the method.
The method is said to be bound to the base type and the method name
is visible only within selectors for type T
or *T.
A non-blank receiver identifier must be unique in the method signature. If the receiver's value is not referenced inside the body of the method, its identifier may be omitted in the declaration. The same applies in general to parameters of functions and methods.
For a base type, the non-blank names of methods bound to it must be unique. If the base type is a struct type, the non-blank method and field names must be distinct.
Given type Point, the declarations
func (p *Point) Length() float64 {
return math.Sqrt(p.x * p.x + p.y * p.y)
}
func (p *Point) Scale(factor float64) {
p.x *= factor
p.y *= factor
}
bind the methods Length and Scale,
with receiver type *Point,
to the base type Point.
The type of a method is the type of a function with the receiver as first
argument. For instance, the method Scale has type
func(p *Point, factor float64)
However, a function declared this way is not a method.
An expression specifies the computation of a value by applying operators and functions to operands.
Operands denote the elementary values in an expression. An operand may be a literal, a (possibly qualified) non-blank identifier denoting a constant, variable, or function, a method expression yielding a function, or a parenthesized expression.
The blank identifier may appear as an operand only on the left-hand side of an assignment.
Operand = Literal | OperandName | MethodExpr | "(" Expression ")" .
Literal = BasicLit | CompositeLit | FunctionLit .
BasicLit = int_lit | float_lit | imaginary_lit | rune_lit | string_lit .
OperandName = identifier | QualifiedIdent.
A qualified identifier is an identifier qualified with a package name prefix. Both the package name and the identifier must not be blank.
QualifiedIdent = PackageName "." identifier .
A qualified identifier accesses an identifier in a different package, which must be imported. The identifier must be exported and declared in the package block of that package.
math.Sin // denotes the Sin function in package math
Composite literals construct values for structs, arrays, slices, and maps and create a new value each time they are evaluated. They consist of the type of the literal followed by a brace-bound list of elements. Each element may optionally be preceded by a corresponding key.
CompositeLit = LiteralType LiteralValue .
LiteralType = StructType | ArrayType | "[" "..." "]" ElementType |
SliceType | MapType | TypeName .
LiteralValue = "{" [ ElementList [ "," ] ] "}" .
ElementList = KeyedElement { "," KeyedElement } .
KeyedElement = [ Key ":" ] Element .
Key = FieldName | Expression | LiteralValue .
FieldName = identifier .
Element = Expression | LiteralValue .
The LiteralType's underlying type must be a struct, array, slice, or map type (the grammar enforces this constraint except when the type is given as a TypeName). The types of the elements and keys must be assignable to the respective field, element, and key types of the literal type; there is no additional conversion. The key is interpreted as a field name for struct literals, an index for array and slice literals, and a key for map literals. For map literals, all elements must have a key. It is an error to specify multiple elements with the same field name or constant key value. For non-constant map keys, see the section on evaluation order.
For struct literals the following rules apply:
Given the declarations
type Point3D struct { x, y, z float64 }
type Line struct { p, q Point3D }
one may write
origin := Point3D{} // zero value for Point3D
line := Line{origin, Point3D{y: -4, z: 12.3}} // zero value for line.q.x
For array and slice literals the following rules apply:
int; and if it is typed
it must be of integer type.
Taking the address of a composite literal generates a pointer to a unique variable initialized with the literal's value.
var pointer *Point3D = &Point3D{y: 1000}
The length of an array literal is the length specified in the literal type.
If fewer elements than the length are provided in the literal, the missing
elements are set to the zero value for the array element type.
It is an error to provide elements with index values outside the index range
of the array. The notation ... specifies an array length equal
to the maximum element index plus one.
buffer := [10]string{} // len(buffer) == 10
intSet := [6]int{1, 2, 3, 5} // len(intSet) == 6
days := [...]string{"Sat", "Sun"} // len(days) == 2
A slice literal describes the entire underlying array literal. Thus the length and capacity of a slice literal are the maximum element index plus one. A slice literal has the form
[]T{x1, x2, … xn}
and is shorthand for a slice operation applied to an array:
tmp := [n]T{x1, x2, … xn}
tmp[0 : n]
Within a composite literal of array, slice, or map type T,
elements or map keys that are themselves composite literals may elide the respective
literal type if it is identical to the element or key type of T.
Similarly, elements or keys that are addresses of composite literals may elide
the &T when the element or key type is *T.
[...]Point{{1.5, -3.5}, {0, 0}} // same as [...]Point{Point{1.5, -3.5}, Point{0, 0}}
[][]int{{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5}} // same as [][]int{[]int{1, 2, 3}, []int{4, 5}}
[][]Point{{{0, 1}, {1, 2}}} // same as [][]Point{[]Point{Point{0, 1}, Point{1, 2}}}
map[string]Point{"orig": {0, 0}} // same as map[string]Point{"orig": Point{0, 0}}
map[Point]string{{0, 0}: "orig"} // same as map[Point]string{Point{0, 0}: "orig"}
type PPoint *Point
[2]*Point{{1.5, -3.5}, {}} // same as [2]*Point{&Point{1.5, -3.5}, &Point{}}
[2]PPoint{{1.5, -3.5}, {}} // same as [2]PPoint{PPoint(&Point{1.5, -3.5}), PPoint(&Point{})}
A parsing ambiguity arises when a composite literal using the TypeName form of the LiteralType appears as an operand between the keyword and the opening brace of the block of an "if", "for", or "switch" statement, and the composite literal is not enclosed in parentheses, square brackets, or curly braces. In this rare case, the opening brace of the literal is erroneously parsed as the one introducing the block of statements. To resolve the ambiguity, the composite literal must appear within parentheses.
if x == (T{a,b,c}[i]) { … }
if (x == T{a,b,c}[i]) { … }
Examples of valid array, slice, and map literals:
// list of prime numbers
primes := []int{2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2147483647}
// vowels[ch] is true if ch is a vowel
vowels := [128]bool{'a': true, 'e': true, 'i': true, 'o': true, 'u': true, 'y': true}
// the array [10]float32{-1, 0, 0, 0, -0.1, -0.1, 0, 0, 0, -1}
filter := [10]float32{-1, 4: -0.1, -0.1, 9: -1}
// frequencies in Hz for equal-tempered scale (A4 = 440Hz)
noteFrequency := map[string]float32{
"C0": 16.35, "D0": 18.35, "E0": 20.60, "F0": 21.83,
"G0": 24.50, "A0": 27.50, "B0": 30.87,
}
A function literal represents an anonymous function.
FunctionLit = "func" Function .
func(a, b int, z float64) bool { return a*b < int(z) }
A function literal can be assigned to a variable or invoked directly.
f := func(x, y int) int { return x + y }
func(ch chan int) { ch <- ACK }(replyChan)
Function literals are closures: they may refer to variables defined in a surrounding function. Those variables are then shared between the surrounding function and the function literal, and they survive as long as they are accessible.
Primary expressions are the operands for unary and binary expressions.
PrimaryExpr =
Operand |
Conversion |
PrimaryExpr Selector |
PrimaryExpr Index |
PrimaryExpr Slice |
PrimaryExpr TypeAssertion |
PrimaryExpr Arguments .
Selector = "." identifier .
Index = "[" Expression "]" .
Slice = "[" [ Expression ] ":" [ Expression ] "]" |
"[" [ Expression ] ":" Expression ":" Expression "]" .
TypeAssertion = "." "(" Type ")" .
Arguments = "(" [ ( ExpressionList | Type [ "," ExpressionList ] ) [ "..." ] [ "," ] ] ")" .
x
2
(s + ".txt")
f(3.1415, true)
Point{1, 2}
m["foo"]
s[i : j + 1]
obj.color
f.p[i].x()
For a primary expression x
that is not a package name, the
selector expression
x.f
denotes the field or method f of the value x
(or sometimes *x; see below).
The identifier f is called the (field or method) selector;
it must not be the blank identifier.
The type of the selector expression is the type of f.
If x is a package name, see the section on
qualified identifiers.
A selector f may denote a field or method f of
a type T, or it may refer
to a field or method f of a nested
embedded field of T.
The number of embedded fields traversed
to reach f is called its depth in T.
The depth of a field or method f
declared in T is zero.
The depth of a field or method f declared in
an embedded field A in T is the
depth of f in A plus one.
The following rules apply to selectors:
x of type T or *T
where T is not a pointer or interface type,
x.f denotes the field or method at the shallowest depth
in T where there
is such an f.
If there is not exactly one f
with shallowest depth, the selector expression is illegal.
x of type I where I
is an interface type, x.f denotes the actual method with name
f of the dynamic value of x.
If there is no method with name f in the
method set of I, the selector
expression is illegal.
x is a named pointer type
and (*x).f is a valid selector expression denoting a field
(but not a method), x.f is shorthand for (*x).f.
x.f is illegal.
x is of pointer type and has the value
nil and x.f denotes a struct field,
assigning to or evaluating x.f
causes a run-time panic.
x is of interface type and has the value
nil, calling or
evaluating the method x.f
causes a run-time panic.
For example, given the declarations:
type T0 struct {
x int
}
func (*T0) M0()
type T1 struct {
y int
}
func (T1) M1()
type T2 struct {
z int
T1
*T0
}
func (*T2) M2()
type Q *T2
var t T2 // with t.T0 != nil
var p *T2 // with p != nil and (*p).T0 != nil
var q Q = p
one may write:
t.z // t.z t.y // t.T1.y t.x // (*t.T0).x p.z // (*p).z p.y // (*p).T1.y p.x // (*(*p).T0).x q.x // (*(*q).T0).x (*q).x is a valid field selector p.M0() // ((*p).T0).M0() M0 expects *T0 receiver p.M1() // ((*p).T1).M1() M1 expects T1 receiver p.M2() // p.M2() M2 expects *T2 receiver t.M2() // (&t).M2() M2 expects *T2 receiver, see section on Calls
but the following is invalid:
q.M0() // (*q).M0 is valid but not a field selector
If M is in the method set of type T,
T.M is a function that is callable as a regular function
with the same arguments as M prefixed by an additional
argument that is the receiver of the method.
MethodExpr = ReceiverType "." MethodName .
ReceiverType = TypeName | "(" "*" TypeName ")" | "(" ReceiverType ")" .
Consider a struct type T with two methods,
Mv, whose receiver is of type T, and
Mp, whose receiver is of type *T.
type T struct {
a int
}
func (tv T) Mv(a int) int { return 0 } // value receiver
func (tp *T) Mp(f float32) float32 { return 1 } // pointer receiver
var t T
The expression
T.Mv
yields a function equivalent to Mv but
with an explicit receiver as its first argument; it has signature
func(tv T, a int) int
That function may be called normally with an explicit receiver, so these five invocations are equivalent:
t.Mv(7) T.Mv(t, 7) (T).Mv(t, 7) f1 := T.Mv; f1(t, 7) f2 := (T).Mv; f2(t, 7)
Similarly, the expression
(*T).Mp
yields a function value representing Mp with signature
func(tp *T, f float32) float32
For a method with a value receiver, one can derive a function with an explicit pointer receiver, so
(*T).Mv
yields a function value representing Mv with signature
func(tv *T, a int) int
Such a function indirects through the receiver to create a value to pass as the receiver to the underlying method; the method does not overwrite the value whose address is passed in the function call.
The final case, a value-receiver function for a pointer-receiver method, is illegal because pointer-receiver methods are not in the method set of the value type.
Function values derived from methods are called with function call syntax;
the receiver is provided as the first argument to the call.
That is, given f := T.Mv, f is invoked
as f(t, 7) not t.f(7).
To construct a function that binds the receiver, use a
function literal or
method value.
It is legal to derive a function value from a method of an interface type. The resulting function takes an explicit receiver of that interface type.
If the expression x has static type T and
M is in the method set of type T,
x.M is called a method value.
The method value x.M is a function value that is callable
with the same arguments as a method call of x.M.
The expression x is evaluated and saved during the evaluation of the
method value; the saved copy is then used as the receiver in any calls,
which may be executed later.
The type T may be an interface or non-interface type.
As in the discussion of method expressions above,
consider a struct type T with two methods,
Mv, whose receiver is of type T, and
Mp, whose receiver is of type *T.
type T struct {
a int
}
func (tv T) Mv(a int) int { return 0 } // value receiver
func (tp *T) Mp(f float32) float32 { return 1 } // pointer receiver
var t T
var pt *T
func makeT() T
The expression
t.Mv
yields a function value of type
func(int) int
These two invocations are equivalent:
t.Mv(7) f := t.Mv; f(7)
Similarly, the expression
pt.Mp
yields a function value of type
func(float32) float32
As with selectors, a reference to a non-interface method with a value receiver
using a pointer will automatically dereference that pointer: pt.Mv is equivalent to (*pt).Mv.
As with method calls, a reference to a non-interface method with a pointer receiver
using an addressable value will automatically take the address of that value: t.Mp is equivalent to (&t).Mp.
f := t.Mv; f(7) // like t.Mv(7) f := pt.Mp; f(7) // like pt.Mp(7) f := pt.Mv; f(7) // like (*pt).Mv(7) f := t.Mp; f(7) // like (&t).Mp(7) f := makeT().Mp // invalid: result of makeT() is not addressable
Although the examples above use non-interface types, it is also legal to create a method value from a value of interface type.
var i interface { M(int) } = myVal
f := i.M; f(7) // like i.M(7)
A primary expression of the form
a[x]
denotes the element of the array, pointer to array, slice, string or map a indexed by x.
The value x is called the index or map key, respectively.
The following rules apply:
If a is not a map:
x must be of integer type or untyped;
it is in range if 0 <= x < len(a),
otherwise it is out of rangeint
For a of array type A:
x is out of range at run time,
a run-time panic occursa[x] is the array element at index x and the type of
a[x] is the element type of A
For a of pointer to array type:
a[x] is shorthand for (*a)[x]
For a of slice type S:
x is out of range at run time,
a run-time panic occursa[x] is the slice element at index x and the type of
a[x] is the element type of S
For a of string type:
a is also constantx is out of range at run time,
a run-time panic occursa[x] is the non-constant byte value at index x and the type of
a[x] is bytea[x] may not be assigned to
For a of map type M:
x's type must be
assignable
to the key type of Mx,
a[x] is the map value with key x
and the type of a[x] is the value type of Mnil or does not contain such an entry,
a[x] is the zero value
for the value type of M
Otherwise a[x] is illegal.
An index expression on a map a of type map[K]V
used in an assignment or initialization of the special form
v, ok = a[x] v, ok := a[x] var v, ok = a[x] var v, ok T = a[x]
yields an additional untyped boolean value. The value of ok is
true if the key x is present in the map, and
false otherwise.
Assigning to an element of a nil map causes a
run-time panic.
Slice expressions construct a substring or slice from a string, array, pointer to array, or slice. There are two variants: a simple form that specifies a low and high bound, and a full form that also specifies a bound on the capacity.
For a string, array, pointer to array, or slice a, the primary expression
a[low : high]
constructs a substring or slice. The indices low and
high select which elements of operand a appear
in the result. The result has indices starting at 0 and length equal to
high - low.
After slicing the array a
a := [5]int{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
s := a[1:4]
the slice s has type []int, length 3, capacity 4, and elements
s[0] == 2 s[1] == 3 s[2] == 4
For convenience, any of the indices may be omitted. A missing low
index defaults to zero; a missing high index defaults to the length of the
sliced operand:
a[2:] // same as a[2 : len(a)] a[:3] // same as a[0 : 3] a[:] // same as a[0 : len(a)]
If a is a pointer to an array, a[low : high] is shorthand for
(*a)[low : high].
For arrays or strings, the indices are in range if
0 <= low <= high <= len(a),
otherwise they are out of range.
For slices, the upper index bound is the slice capacity cap(a) rather than the length.
A constant index must be non-negative and representable by a value of type
int; for arrays or constant strings, constant indices must also be in range.
If both indices are constant, they must satisfy low <= high.
If the indices are out of range at run time, a run-time panic occurs.
Except for untyped strings, if the sliced operand is a string or slice,
the result of the slice operation is a non-constant value of the same type as the operand.
For untyped string operands the result is a non-constant value of type string.
If the sliced operand is an array, it must be addressable
and the result of the slice operation is a slice with the same element type as the array.
If the sliced operand of a valid slice expression is a nil slice, the result
is a nil slice. Otherwise, the result shares its underlying array with the
operand.
For an array, pointer to array, or slice a (but not a string), the primary expression
a[low : high : max]
constructs a slice of the same type, and with the same length and elements as the simple slice
expression a[low : high]. Additionally, it controls the resulting slice's capacity
by setting it to max - low. Only the first index may be omitted; it defaults to 0.
After slicing the array a
a := [5]int{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
t := a[1:3:5]
the slice t has type []int, length 2, capacity 4, and elements
t[0] == 2 t[1] == 3
As for simple slice expressions, if a is a pointer to an array,
a[low : high : max] is shorthand for (*a)[low : high : max].
If the sliced operand is an array, it must be addressable.
The indices are in range if 0 <= low <= high <= max <= cap(a),
otherwise they are out of range.
A constant index must be non-negative and representable by a value of type
int; for arrays, constant indices must also be in range.
If multiple indices are constant, the constants that are present must be in range relative to each
other.
If the indices are out of range at run time, a run-time panic occurs.
For an expression x of interface type
and a type T, the primary expression
x.(T)
asserts that x is not nil
and that the value stored in x is of type T.
The notation x.(T) is called a type assertion.
More precisely, if T is not an interface type, x.(T) asserts
that the dynamic type of x is identical
to the type T.
In this case, T must implement the (interface) type of x;
otherwise the type assertion is invalid since it is not possible for x
to store a value of type T.
If T is an interface type, x.(T) asserts that the dynamic type
of x implements the interface T.
If the type assertion holds, the value of the expression is the value
stored in x and its type is T. If the type assertion is false,
a run-time panic occurs.
In other words, even though the dynamic type of x
is known only at run time, the type of x.(T) is
known to be T in a correct program.
var x interface{} = 7 // x has dynamic type int and value 7
i := x.(int) // i has type int and value 7
type I interface { m() }
func f(y I) {
s := y.(string) // illegal: string does not implement I (missing method m)
r := y.(io.Reader) // r has type io.Reader and the dynamic type of y must implement both I and io.Reader
…
}
A type assertion used in an assignment or initialization of the special form
v, ok = x.(T) v, ok := x.(T) var v, ok = x.(T) var v, ok T1 = x.(T)
yields an additional untyped boolean value. The value of ok is true
if the assertion holds. Otherwise it is false and the value of v is
the zero value for type T.
No run-time panic occurs in this case.
Given an expression f of function type
F,
f(a1, a2, … an)
calls f with arguments a1, a2, … an.
Except for one special case, arguments must be single-valued expressions
assignable to the parameter types of
F and are evaluated before the function is called.
The type of the expression is the result type
of F.
A method invocation is similar but the method itself
is specified as a selector upon a value of the receiver type for
the method.
math.Atan2(x, y) // function call var pt *Point pt.Scale(3.5) // method call with receiver pt
In a function call, the function value and arguments are evaluated in the usual order. After they are evaluated, the parameters of the call are passed by value to the function and the called function begins execution. The return parameters of the function are passed by value back to the calling function when the function returns.
Calling a nil function value
causes a run-time panic.
As a special case, if the return values of a function or method
g are equal in number and individually
assignable to the parameters of another function or method
f, then the call f(g(parameters_of_g))
will invoke f after binding the return values of
g to the parameters of f in order. The call
of f must contain no parameters other than the call of g,
and g must have at least one return value.
If f has a final ... parameter, it is
assigned the return values of g that remain after
assignment of regular parameters.
func Split(s string, pos int) (string, string) {
return s[0:pos], s[pos:]
}
func Join(s, t string) string {
return s + t
}
if Join(Split(value, len(value)/2)) != value {
log.Panic("test fails")
}
A method call x.m() is valid if the method set
of (the type of) x contains m and the
argument list can be assigned to the parameter list of m.
If x is addressable and &x's method
set contains m, x.m() is shorthand
for (&x).m():
var p Point p.Scale(3.5)
There is no distinct method type and there are no method literals.
... parameters
If f is variadic with a final
parameter p of type ...T, then within f
the type of p is equivalent to type []T.
If f is invoked with no actual arguments for p,
the value passed to p is nil.
Otherwise, the value passed is a new slice
of type []T with a new underlying array whose successive elements
are the actual arguments, which all must be assignable
to T. The length and capacity of the slice is therefore
the number of arguments bound to p and may differ for each
call site.
Given the function and calls
func Greeting(prefix string, who ...string)
Greeting("nobody")
Greeting("hello:", "Joe", "Anna", "Eileen")
within Greeting, who will have the value
nil in the first call, and
[]string{"Joe", "Anna", "Eileen"} in the second.
If the final argument is assignable to a slice type []T, it may be
passed unchanged as the value for a ...T parameter if the argument
is followed by .... In this case no new slice is created.
Given the slice s and call
s := []string{"James", "Jasmine"}
Greeting("goodbye:", s...)
within Greeting, who will have the same value as s
with the same underlying array.
Operators combine operands into expressions.
Expression = UnaryExpr | Expression binary_op Expression . UnaryExpr = PrimaryExpr | unary_op UnaryExpr . binary_op = "||" | "&&" | rel_op | add_op | mul_op . rel_op = "==" | "!=" | "<" | "<=" | ">" | ">=" . add_op = "+" | "-" | "|" | "^" . mul_op = "*" | "/" | "%" | "<<" | ">>" | "&" | "&^" . unary_op = "+" | "-" | "!" | "^" | "*" | "&" | "<-" .
Comparisons are discussed elsewhere. For other binary operators, the operand types must be identical unless the operation involves shifts or untyped constants. For operations involving constants only, see the section on constant expressions.
Except for shift operations, if one operand is an untyped constant and the other operand is not, the constant is converted to the type of the other operand.
The right operand in a shift expression must have unsigned integer type or be an untyped constant that can be converted to unsigned integer type. If the left operand of a non-constant shift expression is an untyped constant, it is first converted to the type it would assume if the shift expression were replaced by its left operand alone.
var s uint = 33 var i = 1<<s // 1 has type int var j int32 = 1<<s // 1 has type int32; j == 0 var k = uint64(1<<s) // 1 has type uint64; k == 1<<33 var m int = 1.0<<s // 1.0 has type int; m == 0 if ints are 32bits in size var n = 1.0<<s == j // 1.0 has type int32; n == true var o = 1<<s == 2<<s // 1 and 2 have type int; o == true if ints are 32bits in size var p = 1<<s == 1<<33 // illegal if ints are 32bits in size: 1 has type int, but 1<<33 overflows int var u = 1.0<<s // illegal: 1.0 has type float64, cannot shift var u1 = 1.0<<s != 0 // illegal: 1.0 has type float64, cannot shift var u2 = 1<<s != 1.0 // illegal: 1 has type float64, cannot shift var v float32 = 1<<s // illegal: 1 has type float32, cannot shift var w int64 = 1.0<<33 // 1.0<<33 is a constant shift expression
Unary operators have the highest precedence.
As the ++ and -- operators form
statements, not expressions, they fall
outside the operator hierarchy.
As a consequence, statement *p++ is the same as (*p)++.
There are five precedence levels for binary operators.
Multiplication operators bind strongest, followed by addition
operators, comparison operators, && (logical AND),
and finally || (logical OR):
Precedence Operator
5 * / % << >> & &^
4 + - | ^
3 == != < <= > >=
2 &&
1 ||
Binary operators of the same precedence associate from left to right.
For instance, x / y * z is the same as (x / y) * z.
+x 23 + 3*x[i] x <= f() ^a >> b f() || g() x == y+1 && <-chanPtr > 0
Arithmetic operators apply to numeric values and yield a result of the same
type as the first operand. The four standard arithmetic operators (+,
-, *, /) apply to integer,
floating-point, and complex types; + also applies to strings.
The bitwise logical and shift operators apply to integers only.
+ sum integers, floats, complex values, strings - difference integers, floats, complex values * product integers, floats, complex values / quotient integers, floats, complex values % remainder integers & bitwise AND integers | bitwise OR integers ^ bitwise XOR integers &^ bit clear (AND NOT) integers << left shift integer << unsigned integer >> right shift integer >> unsigned integer
For two integer values x and y, the integer quotient
q = x / y and remainder r = x % y satisfy the following
relationships:
x = q*y + r and |r| < |y|
with x / y truncated towards zero
("truncated division").
x y x / y x % y 5 3 1 2 -5 3 -1 -2 5 -3 -1 2 -5 -3 1 -2
As an exception to this rule, if the dividend x is the most
negative value for the int type of x, the quotient
q = x / -1 is equal to x (and r = 0).
x, q int8 -128 int16 -32768 int32 -2147483648 int64 -9223372036854775808
If the divisor is a constant, it must not be zero. If the divisor is zero at run time, a run-time panic occurs. If the dividend is non-negative and the divisor is a constant power of 2, the division may be replaced by a right shift, and computing the remainder may be replaced by a bitwise AND operation:
x x / 4 x % 4 x >> 2 x & 3 11 2 3 2 3 -11 -2 -3 -3 1
The shift operators shift the left operand by the shift count specified by the
right operand. They implement arithmetic shifts if the left operand is a signed
integer and logical shifts if it is an unsigned integer.
There is no upper limit on the shift count. Shifts behave
as if the left operand is shifted n times by 1 for a shift
count of n.
As a result, x << 1 is the same as x*2
and x >> 1 is the same as
x/2 but truncated towards negative infinity.
For integer operands, the unary operators
+, -, and ^ are defined as
follows:
+x is 0 + x
-x negation is 0 - x
^x bitwise complement is m ^ x with m = "all bits set to 1" for unsigned x
and m = -1 for signed x
For unsigned integer values, the operations +,
-, *, and << are
computed modulo 2n, where n is the bit width of
the unsigned integer's type.
Loosely speaking, these unsigned integer operations
discard high bits upon overflow, and programs may rely on ``wrap around''.
For signed integers, the operations +,
-, *, and << may legally
overflow and the resulting value exists and is deterministically defined
by the signed integer representation, the operation, and its operands.
No exception is raised as a result of overflow. A
compiler may not optimize code under the assumption that overflow does
not occur. For instance, it may not assume that x < x + 1 is always true.
For floating-point and complex numbers,
+x is the same as x,
while -x is the negation of x.
The result of a floating-point or complex division by zero is not specified beyond the
IEEE-754 standard; whether a run-time panic
occurs is implementation-specific.
An implementation may combine multiple floating-point operations into a single fused operation, possibly across statements, and produce a result that differs from the value obtained by executing and rounding the instructions individually. A floating-point type conversion explicitly rounds to the precision of the target type, preventing fusion that would discard that rounding.
For instance, some architectures provide a "fused multiply and add" (FMA) instruction
that computes x*y + z without rounding the intermediate result x*y.
These examples show when a Go implementation can use that instruction:
// FMA allowed for computing r, because x*y is not explicitly rounded: r = x*y + z r = z; r += x*y t = x*y; r = t + z *p = x*y; r = *p + z r = x*y + float64(z) // FMA disallowed for computing r, because it would omit rounding of x*y: r = float64(x*y) + z r = z; r += float64(x*y) t = float64(x*y); r = t + z
Strings can be concatenated using the + operator
or the += assignment operator:
s := "hi" + string(c) s += " and good bye"
String addition creates a new string by concatenating the operands.
Comparison operators compare two operands and yield an untyped boolean value.
== equal != not equal < less <= less or equal > greater >= greater or equal
In any comparison, the first operand must be assignable to the type of the second operand, or vice versa.
The equality operators == and != apply
to operands that are comparable.
The ordering operators <, <=, >, and >=
apply to operands that are ordered.
These terms and the result of the comparisons are defined as follows:
true or both false.
u and v are
equal if both real(u) == real(v) and
imag(u) == imag(v).
nil.
Pointers to distinct zero-size variables may or may not be equal.
make
or if both have value nil.
nil.
x of non-interface type X and
a value t of interface type T are comparable when values
of type X are comparable and
X implements T.
They are equal if t's dynamic type is identical to X
and t's dynamic value is equal to x.
A comparison of two interface values with identical dynamic types causes a run-time panic if values of that type are not comparable. This behavior applies not only to direct interface value comparisons but also when comparing arrays of interface values or structs with interface-valued fields.
Slice, map, and function values are not comparable.
However, as a special case, a slice, map, or function value may
be compared to the predeclared identifier nil.
Comparison of pointer, channel, and interface values to nil
is also allowed and follows from the general rules above.
const c = 3 < 4 // c is the untyped boolean constant true type MyBool bool var x, y int var ( // The result of a comparison is an untyped boolean. // The usual assignment rules apply. b3 = x == y // b3 has type bool b4 bool = x == y // b4 has type bool b5 MyBool = x == y // b5 has type MyBool )
Logical operators apply to boolean values and yield a result of the same type as the operands. The right operand is evaluated conditionally.
&& conditional AND p && q is "if p then q else false" || conditional OR p || q is "if p then true else q" ! NOT !p is "not p"
For an operand x of type T, the address operation
&x generates a pointer of type *T to x.
The operand must be addressable,
that is, either a variable, pointer indirection, or slice indexing
operation; or a field selector of an addressable struct operand;
or an array indexing operation of an addressable array.
As an exception to the addressability requirement, x may also be a
(possibly parenthesized)
composite literal.
If the evaluation of x would cause a run-time panic,
then the evaluation of &x does too.
For an operand x of pointer type *T, the pointer
indirection *x denotes the variable of type T pointed
to by x.
If x is nil, an attempt to evaluate *x
will cause a run-time panic.
&x
&a[f(2)]
&Point{2, 3}
*p
*pf(x)
var x *int = nil
*x // causes a run-time panic
&*x // causes a run-time panic
For an operand ch of channel type,
the value of the receive operation <-ch is the value received
from the channel ch. The channel direction must permit receive operations,
and the type of the receive operation is the element type of the channel.
The expression blocks until a value is available.
Receiving from a nil channel blocks forever.
A receive operation on a closed channel can always proceed
immediately, yielding the element type's zero value
after any previously sent values have been received.
v1 := <-ch v2 = <-ch f(<-ch) <-strobe // wait until clock pulse and discard received value
A receive expression used in an assignment or initialization of the special form
x, ok = <-ch x, ok := <-ch var x, ok = <-ch var x, ok T = <-ch
yields an additional untyped boolean result reporting whether the
communication succeeded. The value of ok is true
if the value received was delivered by a successful send operation to the
channel, or false if it is a zero value generated because the
channel is closed and empty.
Conversions are expressions of the form T(x)
where T is a type and x is an expression
that can be converted to type T.
Conversion = Type "(" Expression [ "," ] ")" .
If the type starts with the operator * or <-,
or if the type starts with the keyword func
and has no result list, it must be parenthesized when
necessary to avoid ambiguity:
*Point(p) // same as *(Point(p)) (*Point)(p) // p is converted to *Point <-chan int(c) // same as <-(chan int(c)) (<-chan int)(c) // c is converted to <-chan int func()(x) // function signature func() x (func())(x) // x is converted to func() (func() int)(x) // x is converted to func() int func() int(x) // x is converted to func() int (unambiguous)
A constant value x can be converted to
type T in any of these cases:
x is representable by a value of type T.
x is a floating-point constant,
T is a floating-point type,
and x is representable by a value
of type T after rounding using
IEEE 754 round-to-even rules, but with an IEEE -0.0
further rounded to an unsigned 0.0.
The constant T(x) is the rounded value.
x is an integer constant and T is a
string type.
The same rule
as for non-constant x applies in this case.
Converting a constant yields a typed constant as result.
uint(iota) // iota value of type uint
float32(2.718281828) // 2.718281828 of type float32
complex128(1) // 1.0 + 0.0i of type complex128
float32(0.49999999) // 0.5 of type float32
float64(-1e-1000) // 0.0 of type float64
string('x') // "x" of type string
string(0x266c) // "♬" of type string
MyString("foo" + "bar") // "foobar" of type MyString
string([]byte{'a'}) // not a constant: []byte{'a'} is not a constant
(*int)(nil) // not a constant: nil is not a constant, *int is not a boolean, numeric, or string type
int(1.2) // illegal: 1.2 cannot be represented as an int
string(65.0) // illegal: 65.0 is not an integer constant
A non-constant value x can be converted to type T
in any of these cases:
x is assignable
to T.
x's type and T have identical
underlying types.
x's type and T are pointer types
that are not defined types,
and their pointer base types have identical underlying types.
x's type and T are both integer or floating
point types.
x's type and T are both complex types.
x is an integer or a slice of bytes or runes
and T is a string type.
x is a string and T is a slice of bytes or runes.
Struct tags are ignored when comparing struct types for identity for the purpose of conversion:
type Person struct {
Name string
Address *struct {
Street string
City string
}
}
var data *struct {
Name string `json:"name"`
Address *struct {
Street string `json:"street"`
City string `json:"city"`
} `json:"address"`
}
var person = (*Person)(data) // ignoring tags, the underlying types are identical
Specific rules apply to (non-constant) conversions between numeric types or
to and from a string type.
These conversions may change the representation of x
and incur a run-time cost.
All other conversions only change the type but not the representation
of x.
There is no linguistic mechanism to convert between pointers and integers.
The package unsafe
implements this functionality under
restricted circumstances.
For the conversion of non-constant numeric values, the following rules apply:
v := uint16(0x10F0), then uint32(int8(v)) == 0xFFFFFFF0.
The conversion always yields a valid value; there is no indication of overflow.
x of type float32
may be stored using additional precision beyond that of an IEEE-754 32-bit number,
but float32(x) represents the result of rounding x's value to
32-bit precision. Similarly, x + 0.1 may use more than 32 bits
of precision, but float32(x + 0.1) does not.
In all non-constant conversions involving floating-point or complex values, if the result type cannot represent the value the conversion succeeds but the result value is implementation-dependent.
"\uFFFD".
string('a') // "a"
string(-1) // "\ufffd" == "\xef\xbf\xbd"
string(0xf8) // "\u00f8" == "ø" == "\xc3\xb8"
type MyString string
MyString(0x65e5) // "\u65e5" == "日" == "\xe6\x97\xa5"
string([]byte{'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', '\xc3', '\xb8'}) // "hellø"
string([]byte{}) // ""
string([]byte(nil)) // ""
type MyBytes []byte
string(MyBytes{'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', '\xc3', '\xb8'}) // "hellø"
string([]rune{0x767d, 0x9d6c, 0x7fd4}) // "\u767d\u9d6c\u7fd4" == "白鵬翔"
string([]rune{}) // ""
string([]rune(nil)) // ""
type MyRunes []rune
string(MyRunes{0x767d, 0x9d6c, 0x7fd4}) // "\u767d\u9d6c\u7fd4" == "白鵬翔"
[]byte("hellø") // []byte{'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', '\xc3', '\xb8'}
[]byte("") // []byte{}
MyBytes("hellø") // []byte{'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', '\xc3', '\xb8'}
[]rune(MyString("白鵬翔")) // []rune{0x767d, 0x9d6c, 0x7fd4}
[]rune("") // []rune{}
MyRunes("白鵬翔") // []rune{0x767d, 0x9d6c, 0x7fd4}
Constant expressions may contain only constant operands and are evaluated at compile time.
Untyped boolean, numeric, and string constants may be used as operands wherever it is legal to use an operand of boolean, numeric, or string type, respectively. Except for shift operations, if the operands of a binary operation are different kinds of untyped constants, the operation and, for non-boolean operations, the result use the kind that appears later in this list: integer, rune, floating-point, complex. For example, an untyped integer constant divided by an untyped complex constant yields an untyped complex constant.
A constant comparison always yields an untyped boolean constant. If the left operand of a constant shift expression is an untyped constant, the result is an integer constant; otherwise it is a constant of the same type as the left operand, which must be of integer type. Applying all other operators to untyped constants results in an untyped constant of the same kind (that is, a boolean, integer, floating-point, complex, or string constant).
const a = 2 + 3.0 // a == 5.0 (untyped floating-point constant) const b = 15 / 4 // b == 3 (untyped integer constant) const c = 15 / 4.0 // c == 3.75 (untyped floating-point constant) const Θ float64 = 3/2 // Θ == 1.0 (type float64, 3/2 is integer division) const Π float64 = 3/2. // Π == 1.5 (type float64, 3/2. is float division) const d = 1 << 3.0 // d == 8 (untyped integer constant) const e = 1.0 << 3 // e == 8 (untyped integer constant) const f = int32(1) << 33 // illegal (constant 8589934592 overflows int32) const g = float64(2) >> 1 // illegal (float64(2) is a typed floating-point constant) const h = "foo" > "bar" // h == true (untyped boolean constant) const j = true // j == true (untyped boolean constant) const k = 'w' + 1 // k == 'x' (untyped rune constant) const l = "hi" // l == "hi" (untyped string constant) const m = string(k) // m == "x" (type string) const Σ = 1 - 0.707i // (untyped complex constant) const Δ = Σ + 2.0e-4 // (untyped complex constant) const Φ = iota*1i - 1/1i // (untyped complex constant)
Applying the built-in function complex to untyped
integer, rune, or floating-point constants yields
an untyped complex constant.
const ic = complex(0, c) // ic == 3.75i (untyped complex constant) const iΘ = complex(0, Θ) // iΘ == 1i (type complex128)
Constant expressions are always evaluated exactly; intermediate values and the constants themselves may require precision significantly larger than supported by any predeclared type in the language. The following are legal declarations:
const Huge = 1 << 100 // Huge == 1267650600228229401496703205376 (untyped integer constant) const Four int8 = Huge >> 98 // Four == 4 (type int8)
The divisor of a constant division or remainder operation must not be zero:
3.14 / 0.0 // illegal: division by zero
The values of typed constants must always be accurately representable as values of the constant type. The following constant expressions are illegal:
uint(-1) // -1 cannot be represented as a uint int(3.14) // 3.14 cannot be represented as an int int64(Huge) // 1267650600228229401496703205376 cannot be represented as an int64 Four * 300 // operand 300 cannot be represented as an int8 (type of Four) Four * 100 // product 400 cannot be represented as an int8 (type of Four)
The mask used by the unary bitwise complement operator ^ matches
the rule for non-constants: the mask is all 1s for unsigned constants
and -1 for signed and untyped constants.
^1 // untyped integer constant, equal to -2 uint8(^1) // illegal: same as uint8(-2), -2 cannot be represented as a uint8 ^uint8(1) // typed uint8 constant, same as 0xFF ^ uint8(1) = uint8(0xFE) int8(^1) // same as int8(-2) ^int8(1) // same as -1 ^ int8(1) = -2
Implementation restriction: A compiler may use rounding while computing untyped floating-point or complex constant expressions; see the implementation restriction in the section on constants. This rounding may cause a floating-point constant expression to be invalid in an integer context, even if it would be integral when calculated using infinite precision, and vice versa.
At package level, initialization dependencies determine the evaluation order of individual initialization expressions in variable declarations. Otherwise, when evaluating the operands of an expression, assignment, or return statement, all function calls, method calls, and communication operations are evaluated in lexical left-to-right order.
For example, in the (function-local) assignment
y[f()], ok = g(h(), i()+x[j()], <-c), k()
the function calls and communication happen in the order
f(), h(), i(), j(),
<-c, g(), and k().
However, the order of those events compared to the evaluation
and indexing of x and the evaluation
of y is not specified.
a := 1
f := func() int { a++; return a }
x := []int{a, f()} // x may be [1, 2] or [2, 2]: evaluation order between a and f() is not specified
m := map[int]int{a: 1, a: 2} // m may be {2: 1} or {2: 2}: evaluation order between the two map assignments is not specified
n := map[int]int{a: f()} // n may be {2: 3} or {3: 3}: evaluation order between the key and the value is not specified
At package level, initialization dependencies override the left-to-right rule for individual initialization expressions, but not for operands within each expression:
var a, b, c = f() + v(), g(), sqr(u()) + v()
func f() int { return c }
func g() int { return a }
func sqr(x int) int { return x*x }
// functions u and v are independent of all other variables and functions
The function calls happen in the order
u(), sqr(), v(),
f(), v(), and g().
Floating-point operations within a single expression are evaluated according to
the associativity of the operators. Explicit parentheses affect the evaluation
by overriding the default associativity.
In the expression x + (y + z) the addition y + z
is performed before adding x.
Statements control execution.
Statement = Declaration | LabeledStmt | SimpleStmt | GoStmt | ReturnStmt | BreakStmt | ContinueStmt | GotoStmt | FallthroughStmt | Block | IfStmt | SwitchStmt | SelectStmt | ForStmt | DeferStmt . SimpleStmt = EmptyStmt | ExpressionStmt | SendStmt | IncDecStmt | Assignment | ShortVarDecl .
A terminating statement is one of the following:
panic.
All other statements are not terminating.
A statement list ends in a terminating statement if the list is not empty and its final non-empty statement is terminating.
The empty statement does nothing.
EmptyStmt = .
A labeled statement may be the target of a goto,
break or continue statement.
LabeledStmt = Label ":" Statement . Label = identifier .
Error: log.Panic("error encountered")
With the exception of specific built-in functions, function and method calls and receive operations can appear in statement context. Such statements may be parenthesized.
ExpressionStmt = Expression .
The following built-in functions are not permitted in statement context:
append cap complex imag len make new real unsafe.Alignof unsafe.Offsetof unsafe.Sizeof
h(x+y)
f.Close()
<-ch
(<-ch)
len("foo") // illegal if len is the built-in function
A send statement sends a value on a channel. The channel expression must be of channel type, the channel direction must permit send operations, and the type of the value to be sent must be assignable to the channel's element type.
SendStmt = Channel "<-" Expression . Channel = Expression .
Both the channel and the value expression are evaluated before communication
begins. Communication blocks until the send can proceed.
A send on an unbuffered channel can proceed if a receiver is ready.
A send on a buffered channel can proceed if there is room in the buffer.
A send on a closed channel proceeds by causing a run-time panic.
A send on a nil channel blocks forever.
ch <- 3 // send value 3 to channel ch
The "++" and "--" statements increment or decrement their operands
by the untyped constant 1.
As with an assignment, the operand must be addressable
or a map index expression.
IncDecStmt = Expression ( "++" | "--" ) .
The following assignment statements are semantically equivalent:
IncDec statement Assignment x++ x += 1 x-- x -= 1
Assignment = ExpressionList assign_op ExpressionList . assign_op = [ add_op | mul_op ] "=" .
Each left-hand side operand must be addressable,
a map index expression, or (for = assignments only) the
blank identifier.
Operands may be parenthesized.
x = 1 *p = f() a[i] = 23 (k) = <-ch // same as: k = <-ch
An assignment operation x op=
y where op is a binary arithmetic operator
is equivalent to x = x op
(y) but evaluates x
only once. The op= construct is a single token.
In assignment operations, both the left- and right-hand expression lists
must contain exactly one single-valued expression, and the left-hand
expression must not be the blank identifier.
a[i] <<= 2 i &^= 1<<n
A tuple assignment assigns the individual elements of a multi-valued
operation to a list of variables. There are two forms. In the
first, the right hand operand is a single multi-valued expression
such as a function call, a channel or
map operation, or a type assertion.
The number of operands on the left
hand side must match the number of values. For instance, if
f is a function returning two values,
x, y = f()
assigns the first value to x and the second to y.
In the second form, the number of operands on the left must equal the number
of expressions on the right, each of which must be single-valued, and the
nth expression on the right is assigned to the nth
operand on the left:
one, two, three = '一', '二', '三'
The blank identifier provides a way to ignore right-hand side values in an assignment:
_ = x // evaluate x but ignore it x, _ = f() // evaluate f() but ignore second result value
The assignment proceeds in two phases. First, the operands of index expressions and pointer indirections (including implicit pointer indirections in selectors) on the left and the expressions on the right are all evaluated in the usual order. Second, the assignments are carried out in left-to-right order.
a, b = b, a // exchange a and b
x := []int{1, 2, 3}
i := 0
i, x[i] = 1, 2 // set i = 1, x[0] = 2
i = 0
x[i], i = 2, 1 // set x[0] = 2, i = 1
x[0], x[0] = 1, 2 // set x[0] = 1, then x[0] = 2 (so x[0] == 2 at end)
x[1], x[3] = 4, 5 // set x[1] = 4, then panic setting x[3] = 5.
type Point struct { x, y int }
var p *Point
x[2], p.x = 6, 7 // set x[2] = 6, then panic setting p.x = 7
i = 2
x = []int{3, 5, 7}
for i, x[i] = range x { // set i, x[2] = 0, x[0]
break
}
// after this loop, i == 0 and x == []int{3, 5, 3}
In assignments, each value must be assignable to the type of the operand to which it is assigned, with the following special cases:
bool.
"If" statements specify the conditional execution of two branches according to the value of a boolean expression. If the expression evaluates to true, the "if" branch is executed, otherwise, if present, the "else" branch is executed.
IfStmt = "if" [ SimpleStmt ";" ] Expression Block [ "else" ( IfStmt | Block ) ] .
if x > max {
x = max
}
The expression may be preceded by a simple statement, which executes before the expression is evaluated.
if x := f(); x < y {
return x
} else if x > z {
return z
} else {
return y
}
"Switch" statements provide multi-way execution. An expression or type specifier is compared to the "cases" inside the "switch" to determine which branch to execute.
SwitchStmt = ExprSwitchStmt | TypeSwitchStmt .
There are two forms: expression switches and type switches. In an expression switch, the cases contain expressions that are compared against the value of the switch expression. In a type switch, the cases contain types that are compared against the type of a specially annotated switch expression. The switch expression is evaluated exactly once in a switch statement.
In an expression switch,
the switch expression is evaluated and
the case expressions, which need not be constants,
are evaluated left-to-right and top-to-bottom; the first one that equals the
switch expression
triggers execution of the statements of the associated case;
the other cases are skipped.
If no case matches and there is a "default" case,
its statements are executed.
There can be at most one default case and it may appear anywhere in the
"switch" statement.
A missing switch expression is equivalent to the boolean value
true.
ExprSwitchStmt = "switch" [ SimpleStmt ";" ] [ Expression ] "{" { ExprCaseClause } "}" .
ExprCaseClause = ExprSwitchCase ":" StatementList .
ExprSwitchCase = "case" ExpressionList | "default" .
If the switch expression evaluates to an untyped constant, it is first
converted to its default type;
if it is an untyped boolean value, it is first converted to type bool.
The predeclared untyped value nil cannot be used as a switch expression.
If a case expression is untyped, it is first converted
to the type of the switch expression.
For each (possibly converted) case expression x and the value t
of the switch expression, x == t must be a valid comparison.
In other words, the switch expression is treated as if it were used to declare and
initialize a temporary variable t without explicit type; it is that
value of t against which each case expression x is tested
for equality.
In a case or default clause, the last non-empty statement may be a (possibly labeled) "fallthrough" statement to indicate that control should flow from the end of this clause to the first statement of the next clause. Otherwise control flows to the end of the "switch" statement. A "fallthrough" statement may appear as the last statement of all but the last clause of an expression switch.
The switch expression may be preceded by a simple statement, which executes before the expression is evaluated.
switch tag {
default: s3()
case 0, 1, 2, 3: s1()
case 4, 5, 6, 7: s2()
}
switch x := f(); { // missing switch expression means "true"
case x < 0: return -x
default: return x
}
switch {
case x < y: f1()
case x < z: f2()
case x == 4: f3()
}
Implementation restriction: A compiler may disallow multiple case expressions evaluating to the same constant. For instance, the current compilers disallow duplicate integer, floating point, or string constants in case expressions.
A type switch compares types rather than values. It is otherwise similar
to an expression switch. It is marked by a special switch expression that
has the form of a type assertion
using the reserved word type rather than an actual type:
switch x.(type) {
// cases
}
Cases then match actual types T against the dynamic type of the
expression x. As with type assertions, x must be of
interface type, and each non-interface type
T listed in a case must implement the type of x.
The types listed in the cases of a type switch must all be
different.
TypeSwitchStmt = "switch" [ SimpleStmt ";" ] TypeSwitchGuard "{" { TypeCaseClause } "}" .
TypeSwitchGuard = [ identifier ":=" ] PrimaryExpr "." "(" "type" ")" .
TypeCaseClause = TypeSwitchCase ":" StatementList .
TypeSwitchCase = "case" TypeList | "default" .
TypeList = Type { "," Type } .
The TypeSwitchGuard may include a short variable declaration. When that form is used, the variable is declared at the end of the TypeSwitchCase in the implicit block of each clause. In clauses with a case listing exactly one type, the variable has that type; otherwise, the variable has the type of the expression in the TypeSwitchGuard.
The type in a case may be nil;
that case is used when the expression in the TypeSwitchGuard
is a nil interface value.
There may be at most one nil case.
Given an expression x of type interface{},
the following type switch:
switch i := x.(type) {
case nil:
printString("x is nil") // type of i is type of x (interface{})
case int:
printInt(i) // type of i is int
case float64:
printFloat64(i) // type of i is float64
case func(int) float64:
printFunction(i) // type of i is func(int) float64
case bool, string:
printString("type is bool or string") // type of i is type of x (interface{})
default:
printString("don't know the type") // type of i is type of x (interface{})
}
could be rewritten:
v := x // x is evaluated exactly once
if v == nil {
i := v // type of i is type of x (interface{})
printString("x is nil")
} else if i, isInt := v.(int); isInt {
printInt(i) // type of i is int
} else if i, isFloat64 := v.(float64); isFloat64 {
printFloat64(i) // type of i is float64
} else if i, isFunc := v.(func(int) float64); isFunc {
printFunction(i) // type of i is func(int) float64
} else {
_, isBool := v.(bool)
_, isString := v.(string)
if isBool || isString {
i := v // type of i is type of x (interface{})
printString("type is bool or string")
} else {
i := v // type of i is type of x (interface{})
printString("don't know the type")
}
}
The type switch guard may be preceded by a simple statement, which executes before the guard is evaluated.
The "fallthrough" statement is not permitted in a type switch.
A "for" statement specifies repeated execution of a block. There are three forms: The iteration may be controlled by a single condition, a "for" clause, or a "range" clause.
ForStmt = "for" [ Condition | ForClause | RangeClause ] Block . Condition = Expression .
In its simplest form, a "for" statement specifies the repeated execution of
a block as long as a boolean condition evaluates to true.
The condition is evaluated before each iteration.
If the condition is absent, it is equivalent to the boolean value
true.
for a < b {
a *= 2
}
for clauseA "for" statement with a ForClause is also controlled by its condition, but additionally it may specify an init and a post statement, such as an assignment, an increment or decrement statement. The init statement may be a short variable declaration, but the post statement must not. Variables declared by the init statement are re-used in each iteration.
ForClause = [ InitStmt ] ";" [ Condition ] ";" [ PostStmt ] . InitStmt = SimpleStmt . PostStmt = SimpleStmt .
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
f(i)
}
If non-empty, the init statement is executed once before evaluating the
condition for the first iteration;
the post statement is executed after each execution of the block (and
only if the block was executed).
Any element of the ForClause may be empty but the
semicolons are
required unless there is only a condition.
If the condition is absent, it is equivalent to the boolean value
true.
for cond { S() } is the same as for ; cond ; { S() }
for { S() } is the same as for true { S() }
range clauseA "for" statement with a "range" clause iterates through all entries of an array, slice, string or map, or values received on a channel. For each entry it assigns iteration values to corresponding iteration variables if present and then executes the block.
RangeClause = [ ExpressionList "=" | IdentifierList ":=" ] "range" Expression .
The expression on the right in the "range" clause is called the range expression, which may be an array, pointer to an array, slice, string, map, or channel permitting receive operations. As with an assignment, if present the operands on the left must be addressable or map index expressions; they denote the iteration variables. If the range expression is a channel, at most one iteration variable is permitted, otherwise there may be up to two. If the last iteration variable is the blank identifier, the range clause is equivalent to the same clause without that identifier.
The range expression is evaluated once before beginning the loop, with one exception: if the range expression is an array or a pointer to an array and at most one iteration variable is present, only the range expression's length is evaluated; if that length is constant, by definition the range expression itself will not be evaluated.
Function calls on the left are evaluated once per iteration. For each iteration, iteration values are produced as follows if the respective iteration variables are present:
Range expression 1st value 2nd value array or slice a [n]E, *[n]E, or []E index i int a[i] E string s string type index i int see below rune map m map[K]V key k K m[k] V channel c chan E, <-chan E element e E
a, the index iteration
values are produced in increasing order, starting at element index 0.
If at most one iteration variable is present, the range loop produces
iteration values from 0 up to len(a)-1 and does not index into the array
or slice itself. For a nil slice, the number of iterations is 0.
rune, will be the value of
the corresponding code point. If the iteration encounters an invalid
UTF-8 sequence, the second value will be 0xFFFD,
the Unicode replacement character, and the next iteration will advance
a single byte in the string.
nil, the number of iterations is 0.
nil, the range expression blocks forever.
The iteration values are assigned to the respective iteration variables as in an assignment statement.
The iteration variables may be declared by the "range" clause using a form of
short variable declaration
(:=).
In this case their types are set to the types of the respective iteration values
and their scope is the block of the "for"
statement; they are re-used in each iteration.
If the iteration variables are declared outside the "for" statement,
after execution their values will be those of the last iteration.
var testdata *struct {
a *[7]int
}
for i, _ := range testdata.a {
// testdata.a is never evaluated; len(testdata.a) is constant
// i ranges from 0 to 6
f(i)
}
var a [10]string
for i, s := range a {
// type of i is int
// type of s is string
// s == a[i]
g(i, s)
}
var key string
var val interface {} // value type of m is assignable to val
m := map[string]int{"mon":0, "tue":1, "wed":2, "thu":3, "fri":4, "sat":5, "sun":6}
for key, val = range m {
h(key, val)
}
// key == last map key encountered in iteration
// val == map[key]
var ch chan Work = producer()
for w := range ch {
doWork(w)
}
// empty a channel
for range ch {}
A "go" statement starts the execution of a function call as an independent concurrent thread of control, or goroutine, within the same address space.
GoStmt = "go" Expression .
The expression must be a function or method call; it cannot be parenthesized. Calls of built-in functions are restricted as for expression statements.
The function value and parameters are evaluated as usual in the calling goroutine, but unlike with a regular call, program execution does not wait for the invoked function to complete. Instead, the function begins executing independently in a new goroutine. When the function terminates, its goroutine also terminates. If the function has any return values, they are discarded when the function completes.
go Server()
go func(ch chan<- bool) { for { sleep(10); ch <- true }} (c)
A "select" statement chooses which of a set of possible send or receive operations will proceed. It looks similar to a "switch" statement but with the cases all referring to communication operations.
SelectStmt = "select" "{" { CommClause } "}" .
CommClause = CommCase ":" StatementList .
CommCase = "case" ( SendStmt | RecvStmt ) | "default" .
RecvStmt = [ ExpressionList "=" | IdentifierList ":=" ] RecvExpr .
RecvExpr = Expression .
A case with a RecvStmt may assign the result of a RecvExpr to one or two variables, which may be declared using a short variable declaration. The RecvExpr must be a (possibly parenthesized) receive operation. There can be at most one default case and it may appear anywhere in the list of cases.
Execution of a "select" statement proceeds in several steps:
Since communication on nil channels can never proceed,
a select with only nil channels and no default case blocks forever.
var a []int
var c, c1, c2, c3, c4 chan int
var i1, i2 int
select {
case i1 = <-c1:
print("received ", i1, " from c1\n")
case c2 <- i2:
print("sent ", i2, " to c2\n")
case i3, ok := (<-c3): // same as: i3, ok := <-c3
if ok {
print("received ", i3, " from c3\n")
} else {
print("c3 is closed\n")
}
case a[f()] = <-c4:
// same as:
// case t := <-c4
// a[f()] = t
default:
print("no communication\n")
}
for { // send random sequence of bits to c
select {
case c <- 0: // note: no statement, no fallthrough, no folding of cases
case c <- 1:
}
}
select {} // block forever
A "return" statement in a function F terminates the execution
of F, and optionally provides one or more result values.
Any functions deferred by F
are executed before F returns to its caller.
ReturnStmt = "return" [ ExpressionList ] .
In a function without a result type, a "return" statement must not specify any result values.
func noResult() {
return
}
There are three ways to return values from a function with a result type:
func simpleF() int {
return 2
}
func complexF1() (re float64, im float64) {
return -7.0, -4.0
}
func complexF2() (re float64, im float64) {
return complexF1()
}
func complexF3() (re float64, im float64) {
re = 7.0
im = 4.0
return
}
func (devnull) Write(p []byte) (n int, _ error) {
n = len(p)
return
}
Regardless of how they are declared, all the result values are initialized to the zero values for their type upon entry to the function. A "return" statement that specifies results sets the result parameters before any deferred functions are executed.
Implementation restriction: A compiler may disallow an empty expression list in a "return" statement if a different entity (constant, type, or variable) with the same name as a result parameter is in scope at the place of the return.
func f(n int) (res int, err error) {
if _, err := f(n-1); err != nil {
return // invalid return statement: err is shadowed
}
return
}
A "break" statement terminates execution of the innermost "for", "switch", or "select" statement within the same function.
BreakStmt = "break" [ Label ] .
If there is a label, it must be that of an enclosing "for", "switch", or "select" statement, and that is the one whose execution terminates.
OuterLoop:
for i = 0; i < n; i++ {
for j = 0; j < m; j++ {
switch a[i][j] {
case nil:
state = Error
break OuterLoop
case item:
state = Found
break OuterLoop
}
}
}
A "continue" statement begins the next iteration of the innermost "for" loop at its post statement. The "for" loop must be within the same function.
ContinueStmt = "continue" [ Label ] .
If there is a label, it must be that of an enclosing "for" statement, and that is the one whose execution advances.
RowLoop:
for y, row := range rows {
for x, data := range row {
if data == endOfRow {
continue RowLoop
}
row[x] = data + bias(x, y)
}
}
A "goto" statement transfers control to the statement with the corresponding label within the same function.
GotoStmt = "goto" Label .
goto Error
Executing the "goto" statement must not cause any variables to come into scope that were not already in scope at the point of the goto. For instance, this example:
goto L // BAD v := 3 L:
is erroneous because the jump to label L skips
the creation of v.
A "goto" statement outside a block cannot jump to a label inside that block. For instance, this example:
if n%2 == 1 {
goto L1
}
for n > 0 {
f()
n--
L1:
f()
n--
}
is erroneous because the label L1 is inside
the "for" statement's block but the goto is not.
A "fallthrough" statement transfers control to the first statement of the next case clause in an expression "switch" statement. It may be used only as the final non-empty statement in such a clause.
FallthroughStmt = "fallthrough" .
A "defer" statement invokes a function whose execution is deferred to the moment the surrounding function returns, either because the surrounding function executed a return statement, reached the end of its function body, or because the corresponding goroutine is panicking.
DeferStmt = "defer" Expression .
The expression must be a function or method call; it cannot be parenthesized. Calls of built-in functions are restricted as for expression statements.
Each time a "defer" statement
executes, the function value and parameters to the call are
evaluated as usual
and saved anew but the actual function is not invoked.
Instead, deferred functions are invoked immediately before
the surrounding function returns, in the reverse order
they were deferred.
If a deferred function value evaluates
to nil, execution panics
when the function is invoked, not when the "defer" statement is executed.
For instance, if the deferred function is a function literal and the surrounding function has named result parameters that are in scope within the literal, the deferred function may access and modify the result parameters before they are returned. If the deferred function has any return values, they are discarded when the function completes. (See also the section on handling panics.)
lock(l)
defer unlock(l) // unlocking happens before surrounding function returns
// prints 3 2 1 0 before surrounding function returns
for i := 0; i <= 3; i++ {
defer fmt.Print(i)
}
// f returns 1
func f() (result int) {
defer func() {
result++
}()
return 0
}
Built-in functions are predeclared. They are called like any other function but some of them accept a type instead of an expression as the first argument.
The built-in functions do not have standard Go types, so they can only appear in call expressions; they cannot be used as function values.
For a channel c, the built-in function close(c)
records that no more values will be sent on the channel.
It is an error if c is a receive-only channel.
Sending to or closing a closed channel causes a run-time panic.
Closing the nil channel also causes a run-time panic.
After calling close, and after any previously
sent values have been received, receive operations will return
the zero value for the channel's type without blocking.
The multi-valued receive operation
returns a received value along with an indication of whether the channel is closed.
The built-in functions len and cap take arguments
of various types and return a result of type int.
The implementation guarantees that the result always fits into an int.
Call Argument type Result
len(s) string type string length in bytes
[n]T, *[n]T array length (== n)
[]T slice length
map[K]T map length (number of defined keys)
chan T number of elements queued in channel buffer
cap(s) [n]T, *[n]T array length (== n)
[]T slice capacity
chan T channel buffer capacity
The capacity of a slice is the number of elements for which there is space allocated in the underlying array. At any time the following relationship holds:
0 <= len(s) <= cap(s)
The length of a nil slice, map or channel is 0.
The capacity of a nil slice or channel is 0.
The expression len(s) is constant if
s is a string constant. The expressions len(s) and
cap(s) are constants if the type of s is an array
or pointer to an array and the expression s does not contain
channel receives or (non-constant)
function calls; in this case s is not evaluated.
Otherwise, invocations of len and cap are not
constant and s is evaluated.
const (
c1 = imag(2i) // imag(2i) = 2.0 is a constant
c2 = len([10]float64{2}) // [10]float64{2} contains no function calls
c3 = len([10]float64{c1}) // [10]float64{c1} contains no function calls
c4 = len([10]float64{imag(2i)}) // imag(2i) is a constant and no function call is issued
c5 = len([10]float64{imag(z)}) // invalid: imag(z) is a (non-constant) function call
)
var z complex128
The built-in function new takes a type T,
allocates storage for a variable of that type
at run time, and returns a value of type *T
pointing to it.
The variable is initialized as described in the section on
initial values.
new(T)
For instance
type S struct { a int; b float64 }
new(S)
allocates storage for a variable of type S,
initializes it (a=0, b=0.0),
and returns a value of type *S containing the address
of the location.
The built-in function make takes a type T,
which must be a slice, map or channel type,
optionally followed by a type-specific list of expressions.
It returns a value of type T (not *T).
The memory is initialized as described in the section on
initial values.
Call Type T Result make(T, n) slice slice of type T with length n and capacity n make(T, n, m) slice slice of type T with length n and capacity m make(T) map map of type T make(T, n) map map of type T with initial space for approximately n elements make(T) channel unbuffered channel of type T make(T, n) channel buffered channel of type T, buffer size n
The size arguments n and m must be of integer type or untyped.
A constant size argument must be non-negative and
representable by a value of type int.
If both n and m are provided and are constant, then
n must be no larger than m.
If n is negative or larger than m at run time,
a run-time panic occurs.
s := make([]int, 10, 100) // slice with len(s) == 10, cap(s) == 100 s := make([]int, 1e3) // slice with len(s) == cap(s) == 1000 s := make([]int, 1<<63) // illegal: len(s) is not representable by a value of type int s := make([]int, 10, 0) // illegal: len(s) > cap(s) c := make(chan int, 10) // channel with a buffer size of 10 m := make(map[string]int, 100) // map with initial space for approximately 100 elements
Calling make with a map type and size hint n will
create a map with initial space to hold n map elements.
The precise behavior is implementation-dependent.
The built-in functions append and copy assist in
common slice operations.
For both functions, the result is independent of whether the memory referenced
by the arguments overlaps.
The variadic function append
appends zero or more values x
to s of type S, which must be a slice type, and
returns the resulting slice, also of type S.
The values x are passed to a parameter of type ...T
where T is the element type of
S and the respective
parameter passing rules apply.
As a special case, append also accepts a first argument
assignable to type []byte with a second argument of
string type followed by .... This form appends the
bytes of the string.
append(s S, x ...T) S // T is the element type of S
If the capacity of s is not large enough to fit the additional
values, append allocates a new, sufficiently large underlying
array that fits both the existing slice elements and the additional values.
Otherwise, append re-uses the underlying array.
s0 := []int{0, 0}
s1 := append(s0, 2) // append a single element s1 == []int{0, 0, 2}
s2 := append(s1, 3, 5, 7) // append multiple elements s2 == []int{0, 0, 2, 3, 5, 7}
s3 := append(s2, s0...) // append a slice s3 == []int{0, 0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 0, 0}
s4 := append(s3[3:6], s3[2:]...) // append overlapping slice s4 == []int{3, 5, 7, 2, 3, 5, 7, 0, 0}
var t []interface{}
t = append(t, 42, 3.1415, "foo") // t == []interface{}{42, 3.1415, "foo"}
var b []byte
b = append(b, "bar"...) // append string contents b == []byte{'b', 'a', 'r' }
The function copy copies slice elements from
a source src to a destination dst and returns the
number of elements copied.
Both arguments must have identical element type T and must be
assignable to a slice of type []T.
The number of elements copied is the minimum of
len(src) and len(dst).
As a special case, copy also accepts a destination argument assignable
to type []byte with a source argument of a string type.
This form copies the bytes from the string into the byte slice.
copy(dst, src []T) int copy(dst []byte, src string) int
Examples:
var a = [...]int{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
var s = make([]int, 6)
var b = make([]byte, 5)
n1 := copy(s, a[0:]) // n1 == 6, s == []int{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
n2 := copy(s, s[2:]) // n2 == 4, s == []int{2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5}
n3 := copy(b, "Hello, World!") // n3 == 5, b == []byte("Hello")
The built-in function delete removes the element with key
k from a map m. The
type of k must be assignable
to the key type of m.
delete(m, k) // remove element m[k] from map m
If the map m is nil or the element m[k]
does not exist, delete is a no-op.
Three functions assemble and disassemble complex numbers.
The built-in function complex constructs a complex
value from a floating-point real and imaginary part, while
real and imag
extract the real and imaginary parts of a complex value.
complex(realPart, imaginaryPart floatT) complexT real(complexT) floatT imag(complexT) floatT
The type of the arguments and return value correspond.
For complex, the two arguments must be of the same
floating-point type and the return type is the complex type
with the corresponding floating-point constituents:
complex64 for float32 arguments, and
complex128 for float64 arguments.
If one of the arguments evaluates to an untyped constant, it is first
converted to the type of the other argument.
If both arguments evaluate to untyped constants, they must be non-complex
numbers or their imaginary parts must be zero, and the return value of
the function is an untyped complex constant.
For real and imag, the argument must be
of complex type, and the return type is the corresponding floating-point
type: float32 for a complex64 argument, and
float64 for a complex128 argument.
If the argument evaluates to an untyped constant, it must be a number,
and the return value of the function is an untyped floating-point constant.
The real and imag functions together form the inverse of
complex, so for a value z of a complex type Z,
z == Z(complex(real(z), imag(z))).
If the operands of these functions are all constants, the return value is a constant.
var a = complex(2, -2) // complex128 const b = complex(1.0, -1.4) // untyped complex constant 1 - 1.4i x := float32(math.Cos(math.Pi/2)) // float32 var c64 = complex(5, -x) // complex64 var s uint = complex(1, 0) // untyped complex constant 1 + 0i can be converted to uint _ = complex(1, 2<<s) // illegal: 2 assumes floating-point type, cannot shift var rl = real(c64) // float32 var im = imag(a) // float64 const c = imag(b) // untyped constant -1.4 _ = imag(3 << s) // illegal: 3 assumes complex type, cannot shift
Two built-in functions, panic and recover,
assist in reporting and handling run-time panics
and program-defined error conditions.
func panic(interface{})
func recover() interface{}
While executing a function F,
an explicit call to panic or a run-time panic
terminates the execution of F.
Any functions deferred by F
are then executed as usual.
Next, any deferred functions run by F's caller are run,
and so on up to any deferred by the top-level function in the executing goroutine.
At that point, the program is terminated and the error
condition is reported, including the value of the argument to panic.
This termination sequence is called panicking.
panic(42)
panic("unreachable")
panic(Error("cannot parse"))
The recover function allows a program to manage behavior
of a panicking goroutine.
Suppose a function G defers a function D that calls
recover and a panic occurs in a function on the same goroutine in which G
is executing.
When the running of deferred functions reaches D,
the return value of D's call to recover will be the value passed to the call of panic.
If D returns normally, without starting a new
panic, the panicking sequence stops. In that case,
the state of functions called between G and the call to panic
is discarded, and normal execution resumes.
Any functions deferred by G before D are then run and G's
execution terminates by returning to its caller.
The return value of recover is nil if any of the following conditions holds:
panic's argument was nil;
recover was not called directly by a deferred function.
The protect function in the example below invokes
the function argument g and protects callers from
run-time panics raised by g.
func protect(g func()) {
defer func() {
log.Println("done") // Println executes normally even if there is a panic
if x := recover(); x != nil {
log.Printf("run time panic: %v", x)
}
}()
log.Println("start")
g()
}
Current implementations provide several built-in functions useful during bootstrapping. These functions are documented for completeness but are not guaranteed to stay in the language. They do not return a result.
Function Behavior print prints all arguments; formatting of arguments is implementation-specific println like print but prints spaces between arguments and a newline at the end
Implementation restriction: print and println need not
accept arbitrary argument types, but printing of boolean, numeric, and string
types must be supported.
Go programs are constructed by linking together packages. A package in turn is constructed from one or more source files that together declare constants, types, variables and functions belonging to the package and which are accessible in all files of the same package. Those elements may be exported and used in another package.
Each source file consists of a package clause defining the package to which it belongs, followed by a possibly empty set of import declarations that declare packages whose contents it wishes to use, followed by a possibly empty set of declarations of functions, types, variables, and constants.
SourceFile = PackageClause ";" { ImportDecl ";" } { TopLevelDecl ";" } .
A package clause begins each source file and defines the package to which the file belongs.
PackageClause = "package" PackageName . PackageName = identifier .
The PackageName must not be the blank identifier.
package math
A set of files sharing the same PackageName form the implementation of a package. An implementation may require that all source files for a package inhabit the same directory.
An import declaration states that the source file containing the declaration depends on functionality of the imported package (§Program initialization and execution) and enables access to exported identifiers of that package. The import names an identifier (PackageName) to be used for access and an ImportPath that specifies the package to be imported.
ImportDecl = "import" ( ImportSpec | "(" { ImportSpec ";" } ")" ) .
ImportSpec = [ "." | PackageName ] ImportPath .
ImportPath = string_lit .
The PackageName is used in qualified identifiers
to access exported identifiers of the package within the importing source file.
It is declared in the file block.
If the PackageName is omitted, it defaults to the identifier specified in the
package clause of the imported package.
If an explicit period (.) appears instead of a name, all the
package's exported identifiers declared in that package's
package block will be declared in the importing source
file's file block and must be accessed without a qualifier.
The interpretation of the ImportPath is implementation-dependent but it is typically a substring of the full file name of the compiled package and may be relative to a repository of installed packages.
Implementation restriction: A compiler may restrict ImportPaths to
non-empty strings using only characters belonging to
Unicode's
L, M, N, P, and S general categories (the Graphic characters without
spaces) and may also exclude the characters
!"#$%&'()*,:;<=>?[\]^`{|}
and the Unicode replacement character U+FFFD.
Assume we have compiled a package containing the package clause
package math, which exports function Sin, and
installed the compiled package in the file identified by
"lib/math".
This table illustrates how Sin is accessed in files
that import the package after the
various types of import declaration.
Import declaration Local name of Sin import "lib/math" math.Sin import m "lib/math" m.Sin import . "lib/math" Sin
An import declaration declares a dependency relation between the importing and imported package. It is illegal for a package to import itself, directly or indirectly, or to directly import a package without referring to any of its exported identifiers. To import a package solely for its side-effects (initialization), use the blank identifier as explicit package name:
import _ "lib/math"
Here is a complete Go package that implements a concurrent prime sieve.
package main
import "fmt"
// Send the sequence 2, 3, 4, … to channel 'ch'.
func generate(ch chan<- int) {
for i := 2; ; i++ {
ch <- i // Send 'i' to channel 'ch'.
}
}
// Copy the values from channel 'src' to channel 'dst',
// removing those divisible by 'prime'.
func filter(src <-chan int, dst chan<- int, prime int) {
for i := range src { // Loop over values received from 'src'.
if i%prime != 0 {
dst <- i // Send 'i' to channel 'dst'.
}
}
}
// The prime sieve: Daisy-chain filter processes together.
func sieve() {
ch := make(chan int) // Create a new channel.
go generate(ch) // Start generate() as a subprocess.
for {
prime := <-ch
fmt.Print(prime, "\n")
ch1 := make(chan int)
go filter(ch, ch1, prime)
ch = ch1
}
}
func main() {
sieve()
}
When storage is allocated for a variable,
either through a declaration or a call of new, or when
a new value is created, either through a composite literal or a call
of make,
and no explicit initialization is provided, the variable or value is
given a default value. Each element of such a variable or value is
set to the zero value for its type: false for booleans,
0 for integers, 0.0 for floats, ""
for strings, and nil for pointers, functions, interfaces, slices, channels, and maps.
This initialization is done recursively, so for instance each element of an
array of structs will have its fields zeroed if no value is specified.
These two simple declarations are equivalent:
var i int var i int = 0
After
type T struct { i int; f float64; next *T }
t := new(T)
the following holds:
t.i == 0 t.f == 0.0 t.next == nil
The same would also be true after
var t T
Within a package, package-level variables are initialized in declaration order but after any of the variables they depend on.
More precisely, a package-level variable is considered ready for initialization if it is not yet initialized and either has no initialization expression or its initialization expression has no dependencies on uninitialized variables. Initialization proceeds by repeatedly initializing the next package-level variable that is earliest in declaration order and ready for initialization, until there are no variables ready for initialization.
If any variables are still uninitialized when this process ends, those variables are part of one or more initialization cycles, and the program is not valid.
The declaration order of variables declared in multiple files is determined by the order in which the files are presented to the compiler: Variables declared in the first file are declared before any of the variables declared in the second file, and so on.
Dependency analysis does not rely on the actual values of the
variables, only on lexical references to them in the source,
analyzed transitively. For instance, if a variable x's
initialization expression refers to a function whose body refers to
variable y then x depends on y.
Specifically:
m is a
method value or
method expression of the form
t.m, where the (static) type of t is
not an interface type, and the method m is in the
method set of t.
It is immaterial whether the resulting function value
t.m is invoked.
x depends on a variable
y if x's initialization expression or body
(for functions and methods) contains a reference to y
or to a function or method that depends on y.
Dependency analysis is performed per package; only references referring to variables, functions, and methods declared in the current package are considered.
For example, given the declarations
var (
a = c + b
b = f()
c = f()
d = 3
)
func f() int {
d++
return d
}
the initialization order is d, b, c, a.
Variables may also be initialized using functions named init
declared in the package block, with no arguments and no result parameters.
func init() { … }
Multiple such functions may be defined per package, even within a single
source file. In the package block, the init identifier can
be used only to declare init functions, yet the identifier
itself is not declared. Thus
init functions cannot be referred to from anywhere
in a program.
A package with no imports is initialized by assigning initial values
to all its package-level variables followed by calling all init
functions in the order they appear in the source, possibly in multiple files,
as presented to the compiler.
If a package has imports, the imported packages are initialized
before initializing the package itself. If multiple packages import
a package, the imported package will be initialized only once.
The importing of packages, by construction, guarantees that there
can be no cyclic initialization dependencies.
Package initialization—variable initialization and the invocation of
init functions—happens in a single goroutine,
sequentially, one package at a time.
An init function may launch other goroutines, which can run
concurrently with the initialization code. However, initialization
always sequences
the init functions: it will not invoke the next one
until the previous one has returned.
To ensure reproducible initialization behavior, build systems are encouraged to present multiple files belonging to the same package in lexical file name order to a compiler.
A complete program is created by linking a single, unimported package
called the main package with all the packages it imports, transitively.
The main package must
have package name main and
declare a function main that takes no
arguments and returns no value.
func main() { … }
Program execution begins by initializing the main package and then
invoking the function main.
When that function invocation returns, the program exits.
It does not wait for other (non-main) goroutines to complete.
The predeclared type error is defined as
type error interface {
Error() string
}
It is the conventional interface for representing an error condition, with the nil value representing no error. For instance, a function to read data from a file might be defined:
func Read(f *File, b []byte) (n int, err error)
Execution errors such as attempting to index an array out
of bounds trigger a run-time panic equivalent to a call of
the built-in function panic
with a value of the implementation-defined interface type runtime.Error.
That type satisfies the predeclared interface type
error.
The exact error values that
represent distinct run-time error conditions are unspecified.
package runtime
type Error interface {
error
// and perhaps other methods
}
unsafe
The built-in package unsafe, known to the compiler,
provides facilities for low-level programming including operations
that violate the type system. A package using unsafe
must be vetted manually for type safety and may not be portable.
The package provides the following interface:
package unsafe type ArbitraryType int // shorthand for an arbitrary Go type; it is not a real type type Pointer *ArbitraryType func Alignof(variable ArbitraryType) uintptr func Offsetof(selector ArbitraryType) uintptr func Sizeof(variable ArbitraryType) uintptr
A Pointer is a pointer type but a Pointer
value may not be dereferenced.
Any pointer or value of underlying type uintptr can be converted to
a type of underlying type Pointer and vice versa.
The effect of converting between Pointer and uintptr is implementation-defined.
var f float64 bits = *(*uint64)(unsafe.Pointer(&f)) type ptr unsafe.Pointer bits = *(*uint64)(ptr(&f)) var p ptr = nil
The functions Alignof and Sizeof take an expression x
of any type and return the alignment or size, respectively, of a hypothetical variable v
as if v was declared via var v = x.
The function Offsetof takes a (possibly parenthesized) selector
s.f, denoting a field f of the struct denoted by s
or *s, and returns the field offset in bytes relative to the struct's address.
If f is an embedded field, it must be reachable
without pointer indirections through fields of the struct.
For a struct s with field f:
uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&s)) + unsafe.Offsetof(s.f) == uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&s.f))
Computer architectures may require memory addresses to be aligned;
that is, for addresses of a variable to be a multiple of a factor,
the variable's type's alignment. The function Alignof
takes an expression denoting a variable of any type and returns the
alignment of the (type of the) variable in bytes. For a variable
x:
uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&x)) % unsafe.Alignof(x) == 0
Calls to Alignof, Offsetof, and
Sizeof are compile-time constant expressions of type uintptr.
For the numeric types, the following sizes are guaranteed:
type size in bytes byte, uint8, int8 1 uint16, int16 2 uint32, int32, float32 4 uint64, int64, float64, complex64 8 complex128 16
The following minimal alignment properties are guaranteed:
x of any type: unsafe.Alignof(x) is at least 1.
x of struct type: unsafe.Alignof(x) is the largest of
all the values unsafe.Alignof(x.f) for each field f of x, but at least 1.
x of array type: unsafe.Alignof(x) is the same as
the alignment of a variable of the array's element type.
A struct or array type has size zero if it contains no fields (or elements, respectively) that have a size greater than zero. Two distinct zero-size variables may have the same address in memory.